ANGLO-SAXON   GRAMMAR 
AND   EXERCISE   BOOK 


WITH   INFLECTIONS,  SYNTAX,  SELECTIONS 
FOR   READING,    AND   GLOSSARY 


BY 


C.  ALPHONSO   SMITH,  PH.D.,  LL.D. 

LATE   PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH   IN  THE 
UNITED   STATES   NAVAL  ACADEMY 


ALLYN    AND    BACON 

BOSTON  NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 

ATLANTA  SAN    FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  181X5,  BT 
C.  ALPHONSO  SMITH. 


J.  8.  Gushing  &  Co.  -  Berwick  &  Smith 
Norwood  Mass.  U.S.A. 


PREFACE. 


THE  scope  of  this  book  is  indicated  in  §  5.  It  is  intended 
for  beginners,  and  in  writing  it,  these  words  of  Sir  Thomas 
Elyot  have  not  been  forgotten :  "  Grammer,  beinge  but  an 
introduction  to  the  understandinge  of  autors,  if  it  be  made 
to  longe  or  exquisite  to  the  lerner,  it  in  a  inaner  rnortifieth 
his  corage :  And  by  that  time  he  cometh  to  the  most  swete 
and  pleasant  redinge  of  olde  autors,  the  sparkes  of  fervent 
desire  of  lernynge  are  extincte  with  the  burdone  of  gram- 
mer,  lyke  as  a  lyttell  fyre  is  sone  quenched  with  a  great 
heape  of  small  stickes." —  The  Governour,  Cap.  X. 

Only  the  essentials,  therefore,  are  treated  in  this  work, 
which  is  planned  more  as  a  foundation  for  the  study  of 
Modem  English  grammar,  of  historical  English  grammar, 
and  of  the  principles  of  English  etymology,  than  as  a  gen- 
eral introduction  to  Germanic  philology. 

The  Exercises  in  translation  will,  it  is  believed,  furnish 
all  the  drill  necessary  to  enable  the  student  to  retain  the 
forms  and  constructions  given  in  the  various  chapters. 

The  Selections  for  Heading  relate  to  the  history  and 
literature  of  King  Alfred's  day,  and  are  sufficient  to  give 
the  student  a  first-hand,  though  brief,  acquaintance  with  the 
native  style  and  idiom  of  Early  West  Saxon  prose  in  its 
golden  age.  Most  of  the  words  and  constructions  contained 
in  them  will  be  already  familiar  to  the  student  through 
their  intentional  employment  in  the  Exercises. 

For  the  inflectional  portion  of  this  grammar,  recourse 

2047429 


iv  Preface. 

has  been  had  chiefly  to  Sievers'  Abriss  der  angelsachsischen 
Grammatik  (1895).  Constant  reference  has  been  made 
also  to  the  same  author's  earlier  and  larger  Angelsdchsische 
Grammatik,  translated  by  Cook.  A  more  sparing  use  has 
been  made  of  Cosijn's  Altwestsachsische  Grammatik. 

For  syntax  and  illustrative  sentences,  Dr.  J.  E.  Wtilfmg's 
Syntax  in  den  Werken  Alfreds  des  Grossen,  Part  I.  (Bonn, 
1894)  has  proved  indispensable.  Advance  sheets  of  the 
second  part  of  this  great  work  lead  one  to  believe  that 
when  completed  the  three  parts  will  constitute  the  most 
important  contribution  to  the  study  of  English  syntax  that 
has  yet  been  made.  Old  English  sentences  have  also  been 
cited  from  Sweet's  Anglo-Saxon  Reader,  Bright's  Anglo- 
Saxon  Reader,  and  Cook's  First  Book  in  Old  English. 

The  short  chapter  on  the  Order  of  Words  has  been 
condensed  from  my  Order  of  Words  in  Anglo-Saxon  Prose 
(Publications  of  the  Modern  Language  Association  of 
America,  New  Series,  Vol.  I,  No.  2). 

Though  assuming  sole  responsibility  for  everything  con- 
tained in  this  book,  I  take  pleasure  in  acknowledging  the 
kind  and  efficient  assistance  that  has  been  so  generously 
given  me  in  its  preparation.  To  none  do  I  owe  more  than 
to  Dr.  J.  E.  Wulfmg,  of  the  University  of  Bonn;  Prof. 
James  A.  Harrison,  of  the  University  of  Virginia ;  Prof.  W. 
S.  Currell,  of  Washington  and  Lee  University;  Prof.  J. 
Douglas  Bruce,  of  Bryn  Mawr  College;  and  Prof.  L.  M. 
Harris,  of  the  University  of  Indiana.  They  have  each  ren- 
dered material  aid,  not  only  in  the  tedious  task  of  detecting 
typographical  errors  in  the  proof-sheets,  but  by  the  valu- 
able criticisms  and  suggestions  which  they  have  made  as 
this  work  was  passing  through  the  press. 

C.  ALPHONSO  SMITH. 

LOUISIANA  STATE  UNIVERSITY, 
BATON  ROUGE,  September,  1896. 


PREFACE   TO   THE   SECOND   EDITION. 


IN  preparing  this  enlarged  edition,  a  few  minor  errors  in 
the  first  edition  have  been  corrected  and  a  few  sentences 
added.  The  chief  difference  between  the  two  editions, 
however,  consists  in  the  introduction  of  more  reading  mat- 
ter and  the  consequent  exposition  of  Old  English  meter. 
Both  changes  have  been  made  at  the  persistent  request  of 
teachers  and  students  of  Old  English. 

Uniformity  of  treatment  has  been  studiously  preserved 
in  the  new  material  and  the  old,  the  emphasis  in  both  being 
placed  on  syntax  and  upon  the  affinities  that  Old  English 
shares  with  Modern  English. 

Many  obligations  have  been  incurred  in  preparing  this 
augmented  edition.  I  have  again  to  thank  Dr.  J.  E.  Wtil- 
fing,  Prof.  James  A.  Harrison,  Prof.  W.  S.  Currell,  and  Prof. 
J.  Douglas  Bruce.  To  the  scholarly  criticisms  also  of  Prof. 
J.  M.  Hart,  of  Cornell ;  Prof.  Frank  Jewett  Mather,  Jr.,  of 
Williams  College ;  and  Prof.  Frederick  Tupper,  Jr.,  of  the 
University  of  Vermont,  I  am  indebted  for  aid  as  generously 
given  as  it  is  genuinely  appreciated. 

C.    ALPHONSO   SMITH. 

August,   1898. 


PREFACE   TO   THE   FOURTH   EDITION. 


AMONG  those  who  have  kindly  aided  in  making  this 
edition  free  from  error,  I  wish  to  thank  especially  my 
friend  Dr.  John  M.  McBryde,  Jr.,  of  Hollins  Institute, 

Virginia. 

C.  ALPHONSO  SMITH. 
.  UNIVERSITY  OF  NORTH  CAROLINA., 

Chapel  Hill,  February,  1903. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


PART  I.  — INTRODUCTION. 

Chapters  Pages 

I.  History  (§  1-5) 1 

II.  Sounds  (§  6-11) 4 

III.  Inflections  (§  12-19) 10 

IV.  Order  of  Words  (§  20-21) 18 

V.  Practical  Suggestions  (§  22-24) 21 


PART   II.  — ETYMOLOGY   AND   SYNTAX. 

VI.  The  a-Declension :    Masculine  a-Stems  (§  25-30)    .    .  27 

VH.  Neuter  a-Stems  (§  31-36) 30 

VIII.  The  6-Declension  (§  37-42) 33 

IX.  The  i-Declension  and  the  u-Declension  (§  43-55)  .    .  35 

X.  Present  Indicative  Endings  of  Strong  Verbs  (§  56-62)  39 

XI.  The  Weak  or  n-Declension  (§  63-66) 44 

XII.  Remnants  of  Other  Consonant  Declensions  (§  67-71)  47 

XIII.  Pronouns  (§  72-77) 50 

XIV.  Adjectives,  Stro«g  and  Weak  (§  78-87) 53 

XV.  Numerals  (§  88-92) 57 

XVI.  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  and  Conjunctions  (§  93-95)     .  60 

XVII.  Comparison  of  Adjectives  and  Adverbs  (§  96-100)     .  64 

XVIII.  Strong  Verbs :   Class  I,  Syntax  of  Moods  (§  101-108)  68 

XIX.  Classes  II  and  III  (§  109-113) 74 

vii 


viii  Table  of  Contents. 

Chapters  Pages 

XX.     Classes  IV,  V,  VI,  and  VII;  Contract  Verbs  (§  114- 

121) 78 

XXL     Weak  Verbs  (§  122-133) 82 

XXII.     Remaining  Verbs ;  Verb  Phrases  with  habban,  beon, 

and  weorSan  (§  134-143) 90 


PART   III.  —  SELECTIONS   FOR   READING. 

PROSE. 

Introductory 98 

I.     The  Battle  of  Ashdown 99 

II.     A  Prayer  of  King  Alfred 101 

III.  The  Voyages  of  Ohthere  and  Wulfstan 102 

Ohthere's  First  Voyage 103 

Ohthere's  Second  Voyage 106 

Wulfstan's  Voyage 107 

IV.  The  Story  of  Csedmon Ill 

V.    Alfred's  Preface  to  the  Pastoral  Care 116 

POETRY. 

Introductory 122 

VI.     Extracts  from  Beowulf 136 

VII.     The  Wanderer 148 

GLOSSARIES. 

I.     Old  English  —  Modern  English 155 

II.     Modern  English  — Old  English 190 


OLD  ENGLISH 
GRAMMAR  AND  EXERCISES 


OLD    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR   AND 
EXERCISE   BOOK. 


PART   I. 


INTRODUCTION. 

CHAPTER   I. 
HISTORY. 

1.  The  history  of  the  English  language  falls  naturally 
into  three  periods ;  but  these  periods  blend  into  one  another 
so  gradually  that  too  much  significance  must  not  be  attached 
to  the  exact  dates  which  scholars,  chiefly  for  convenience  of 
treatment,  have  assigned  as  their  limits.     Our  language,  it 
is  true,  has  undergone  many  and  great  changes ;    but  its 
continuity  has  never  been  broken,  and  its  individuality  has 
never  been  lost. 

2.  The  first  of  these  periods  is  that  of  OLD  ENGLISH, 
or  ANGLO-SAXON,1  commonly  known  as  the  period  of  full 

1  This  unfortunate  nomenclature  is  due  to  the  term  Angli  Saxones, 
which  Latin  writers  used  as  a  designation  for  the  English  Saxons  as 
distinguished  from  the  continental  or  Old  Saxons.  But  Alfred  and 
Mlinc  both  use  the  term  Englisc,  not  Anglo-Saxon.  The  Angles 
spread  over  Northumbria  and  Mercia,  far  outnumbering  the  other 
tribes.  Thus  Englisc  (=  Angel  +  isc}  became  the  general  name  for 
the  language  spoken. 

B  1 


2  Introduction, 

inflections.      E.g.  stan-as,   stones;    car-u,  care;   will-a,  will', 
bind-an,  to  bind;   help-a8(=  ath),  they  help. 

It  extends  from  the  arrival  of  the  English  in  Great  Brit- 
ain to  about  one  hundred  years  after  the  Norman  Conquest, 
—  from  A.D.  449  to  1150;  but  there  are  no  literary  remains 
of  the  earlier  centuries  of  this  period.  There  were  four1 
distinct  dialects  spoken  at  this  time.  These  were  the  North- 
umbrian, spoken  north  of  the  river  Humber;  the  Mercian, 
spoken  in  the  midland  region  between  the  Humber  and  the 
Thames;  the  West  Saxon,  spoken  south  and  west  of  the 
Thames;  and  the  Kentish,  spoken  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Canterbury.  Of  these  dialects,  Modern  English  is  most 
nearly  akin  to  the  Mercian ;  but  the  best  known  of  them 
is  the  West  Saxon.  It  was  in  the  West  Saxon  dialect  that 
King  Alfred  (849-901)  wrote  and  spoke.  His  writings 
belong  to  the  period  of  Early  West  Saxon  as  distinguished 
from  the  period  of  Late  West  Saxon,  the  latter  being  best 
represented  in  the  writings  of  Abbot  ^Elf ric  (955  ?-1025  ?). 

3.  The  second  period  is  that  of  MIDDLE  ENGLISH,  or  the 
period  of  leveled  inflections,  the  dominant  vowel  of  the  in- 
flections being  e.  E.g.  ston-es,  car-e.  will-e,  bind-en  (or 
bind-e),  help-eth,  each  being,  as  in  the  earlier  period,  a 
dissyllable. 

The  Middle  English  period  extends  from  A.D.  1150  to 
1500.  Its  greatest  representatives  are  Chaucer  (1340-1400) 
in  poetry  and  Wiclif  (1324-1384)  in  prose.  There  were 
three  prominent  dialects  during  this  period :  the  Northern, 
corresponding  to  the  older  Northumbrian;  the  Midland 

1  As  small  as  England  is,  there  are  six  distinct  dialects  spoken  in 
her  borders  to-day.  Of  these  the  Yorkshire  dialect  is.  perhaps,  the 
most  peculiar.  It  preserves  many  Northumbrian  survivals.  See  Tenny- 
son's Northern  Farmer. 


History.  3 

(divided  into  East  Midland  and  West  Midland),  corre- 
sponding to  the  Mercian;  and  the  Southern,  correspond- 
ing to  the  West  Saxon  and  Kentish.  London,  situated 
in  East  Midland  territory,  had  become  the  dominant 
speech  center;  and  it  was  this  East  Midland  dialect  that 
both  Chaucer  and  Wiclif  employed. 

NOTE.  —  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  think  that  Chaucer  shaped  our 
language  from  crude  materials.  His  influence  was  conservative,  not 
plastic.  The  popularity  of  his  works  tended  to  crystalize  and  thus  to 
perpetuate  the  forms  of  the  East  Midland  dialect,  but  that  dialect  was 
ready  to  his  hand  before  he  began  to  write.  The  speech  of  London 
was,  in  Chaucer's  time,  a  mixture  of  Southern  and  Midland  forms, 
but  the  Southern  forms  (survivals  of  the  West  Saxon  dialect)  had 
already  begun  to  fall  away ;  and  this  they  continued  to  do,  so  that 
"Chaucer's  language,"  as  Dr.  Murray  says,  "is  more  Southern  than 
standard  English  eventually  became."  See  also  Morsbach,  Ueber  den 
Urspntng  der  neuenglischen  Schriftsprache  (1888). 

4.  The  last  period  is  that  of  MODERN  ENGLISH,  or  the 
period  of  lost  inflections.     E.g.  stones,  care,  will,  bind,  help, 
each  being  a  monosyllable.     Modern  English  extends  from 
A.D.  1500  to  the  present  time.     It  has  witnessed  compara- 
tively few  grammatical  changes,  but  the  vocabulary  of  our 
language  has  been  vastly  increased  by  additions  from  the 
classical  languages.     Vowels,  too,  have  shifted  their  values. 

5.  It  is  the  object  of  this  book  to  give  an  elementary 
knowledge  of  Early  West  Saxon,  that  is,  the  language  of 
King  Alfred.     With  this  knowledge,  it  will  not  be  difficult 
for  the  student  to  read  Late  West  Saxon,  or  any  other 
dialect  of  the  Old  English  period.      Such  knowledge  will 
also  serve  as  the  best  introduction  to  the  structure  both 
of  Middle  English  and  of  Modern  English,  besides  laying 
a  secure  foundation  for  the  scientific  study  of  any  other 
Germanic  tongue. 


Introduction. 


NOTE.  —  The  Germanic,  or  Teutonic,  languages  constitute  a  branch 
of  the  great  Aryan,  or  Indo-Germanic  (known  also  as  the  Indo- 
European)  group.  They  are  subdivided  as  follows: 

North  Germanic :  Scandinavian,  or  Norse. 


Germanic  - 


East  Germanic : 


West  Germanic . 


Gothic. 
High  German 


.  Low  German 


( Old  High  German, 

(tO  A.D.  1100,) 

I  Middle  High  German, 

(A.D.  1100-1500,) 

New  High  German. 

[         (A.D.  1500-.) 
( Dutch, 
I  Old  Saxon, 
1  Frisian, 
[  English. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SOUNDS. 

/ 

Vowels  and  Diphthongs. 

6.  The  long  vowels  and  diphthongs  will  in  this 
book  be  designated  by  the  macron  (~).  Vowel  length 
should  in  every  case  be  associated  by  the  student  with 
each  word  learned:  quantity  alone  sometimes  distin- 
guishes words  meaning  wholly  different  things:  for, 
he  went,  for,  for;  god,  good,  God,  Crod ;  man,  crime, 
man,  man. 

Long  vowels  and  diphthongs: 

a    as  in  father :  stan,  a  stone. 

ae  as  in  man  (prolonged)  :  slaepan,  to  sleep. 

5  as  in  they :  h§r,  here. 

I     as  in  machine :  mm.  mine. 

6  as  in  note  (pure,  not  diphthongal)  :  boc,  book. 


Sounds.  5 

u  as  in   r«le :  tun,  town. 

y  as  in   German  grim,  or  English  green  (with  lips  rounded).1  brjrd, 
bride. 

The  diphthongs,  long  and  short,  have  the  stress 
upon  the  first  vowel.  The  second  vowel  is  obscu"red, 
and  represents  approximately  the  sound  of  er  in  sooner, 
faster  (  =  soon-uh,  fast-uJi).  The  long  diphthongs 
(ae  is  not  a  diphthong  proper)  are  So,  Ie,  and  5a.  The 
sound  of  eo  is  approximately  reproduced  in  mayor 
(  =  md-uh) ;  that  of  Ie  in  the  dissyllabic  pronunciation 
of  fear  (  =  fe-uh').  But  Sa  =  ce-uh.  This  diphthong  i« 
hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  ea  in  pear,  bear,  etc., 
as  pronounced  in  the  southern  section  of  the  United 
States  (=  bce-uh,  pce-uk). 

7.  The  short  sounds  are  nothing  more  than  the  long 
vowels  and  diphthongs  shortened ;  but  the  student  must 
at  once  rid  himself  of  the  idea  that  Modern  English 
red,  for  example,  is  the  shortened  form  of  reed,  or  that 
mat  is  the  shortened  form  of  mate.  Pronounce  these 
long  sounds  with  increasing  rapidity,  and  reed  will 
approach  rid,  while  mate  will  approach  met.  The  Old 
English  short  vowel  sounds  are : 

a  as  in   artistic :  habban,  to  have. 

ae  as  in   mankind  :  daeg,  day. 

e,  ^  as  in  let.:  stelan,  to  steal,  sfttan,  to  set. 

i  as  in   stt :  hit,  it. 

o  .  as  in  broad  (but  shorter):  God,  God. 

9  as  in   not:  Iqmb.  lamb. 

u  as  in  full :  sunu,  son. 

y  as  in  miller  (with  lips  rounded)1:  gylden,  golden. 

1  Vowels  are  said  to  be  round,  or  rounded,  when  the  lip-opening 
is  rounded ;  that  is,  when  the  lips  are  thrust  out  and  puckered  as  if 


6  Introduction. 

NOTE. — The  symbol  f  is  known  as  umlaut-e  (§58).  It  stands 
for  Germanic  a,  while  e  (without  the  cedilla)  represents  Germanic  e. 
The  symbol  9  is  employed  only  before  m  and  n.  It,  too,  represents 
Germanic  a.  But  Alfred  writes  manig  or  monig,  many ;  lamb  or 
lomb,  lamb  ;  hand  or  bond,  hand,  etc.  The  cedilla  is  an  etymologi- 
cal sign  added  by  modern  grammarians. 

Consonants. 

8.  There  is  little  difference  between  the  values  of 
Old  English  consonants  and  those  of  Modern  English. 
The  following  distinctions,  however,  require  notice  : 

The  digraph  th  is  represented  in  Old  English  texts  by 
8  and  b,  no  consistent  distinction  being  made  between 
them.  In  the  works  of  Alfred,  3  (capital,  D)  is  the 
more  common  :  3as,  those;  Saet,  that;  bindeS,  he  binds. 

The  consonant  c  had  the  hard  sound  of  &,  the  latter 
symbol  being  rare  in  West  Saxon  :  cyning,  king;  cwgn, 
queen;  cuS,  known.  When  followed  by  a  palatal  vowel 
sound,  —  e,  i,  oe,  ea,  eo,  long  or  short,  —  a  vanishing  y 
sound  was  doubtless  interposed  (cf.  dialectic  kyind  for 
kind).  In  Modern  English  the  combination  has  passed 
into  ch:  cealc,  chalk;  cldan,  to  chide;  laece.  leech;  cild, 
child;  cgowan,  to  chew.  This  change  (c  >  ch)  is  known 
as  Palatalization.  The  letter  g,  pronounced  as  in  Mod- 
ern English  gun,  has  also  a  palatal  value  before  the 
palatal  vowels  (cf.  dialectic  g^irl  for  girl). 

The  combination  eg,  which  frequently  stands  for 
gg,  had  probably  the  sound  of  dge  in  Modern  English 
edge:  §cg,  edge;  slogan,  to  say ;  brycg,  bridge. 

preparing  to  pronounce  w.     Thus  o  and  u  are  round  vowels :  add  -ing 
to  each,  and  phonetically  you  have  added  -icing.     E.g.  gowing,  suwing. 


Sounds.  7 

Initial  h  is  sounded  as  in  Modern  English :  habban, 
to  have;  halga,  saint.  When  closing  a  syllable  it  has 
the  sound  of  German  ch:  sloh,  he  slew;  heah,  high; 
3urh,  through. 

9.  An  important  distinction  is  that  between  voiced 
(or  sonant)  and  voiceless  (or  surd)  consonants.1  In 
Old  English  they  are  as  follows : 

VOICED.  VOICELESS. 

g  h,  c 

d  t 

3,  p  (as  in  £/iough)  3,  J>  (as  in  thin) 

b  P 

f(=v)  f 

S(=Z)  8 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  8  (b),  f,  and. a  have 
double  values  in  Old  English.  If  voiced,  they  are 
equivalent  to  th  (in  iAough),  v,  and  z.  Otherwise,  they 
are  pronounced  as  th  (in  £Ain),  /  (in  /in),  and  s  (in 
sin).  The  syllabic  environment  will  usually  compel 
the  student  to  give  these  letters  their  proper  values. 
When  occurring  between  vowels,  they  are  always 
voiced  :  oSer,  other;  ofer,  over;  rlsan,  to  rise. 

NOTE. — The  general  rule  in  Old  English,  as  in  Modern  English,  is, 
that  voiced  consonants  have  a  special  affinity  for  other  voiced  con- 
sonants, and  voiceless  for  voiceless.  This  is  the  law  of  Assimilation. 
Thus  when  tZe  is  added  to  form  the  preterit  of  a  verb  whose  stem 

1  A  little  practice  will  enable  the  student  to  see  the  appropriateness 
of  calling  these  consonants  voiced  and  voiceless.  Try  to  pronounce 
a  voiced  consonant,  — d  in  den,  for  example,  but  without  the  assistance 
of  en,  —  and  there  will  be  heard  a  gurgle,  or  vocal  murmur.  But  in 
f,  of  ten,  there  is  no  sound  at  all,  but  only  a  feeling  of  tension  in  the 
organs. 


8  Introduction. 

ends  in  a  voiceless  consonant,  the  d  is  unvoiced,  or  assimilated,  to  t. 
septan,  to  set,  s^tte  (but  tr^ddan,  to  tread,  has  tr^dde) ;  sleepan,  to 
sleep,  elaepte  ;  drejican,  to  drench,  dr$ncte ;  cyssan,  to  kiss,  cyste. 
See  §  126,  Note  1. 

Syllables. 

10.  A  syllable  is  usually  a  vowel,  either  alone  or 
in  combination  with  consonants,  uttered  with  a  single 
impulse  of  stress;  but  certain  consonants  may  form 
syllables  :  oven  (=  ov-n),  battle  (=  bcet-l)  ;  (cf.  also  the 
vulgar  pronunciation  of  elm). 

A  syllable  may  be  (1)  weak  or  strong,  (2)  open  or 
closed,  (3)  long  or  short. 

(1)  A  weak  syllable   receives  a  light  stress.       Its 
vowel  sound  is  often  different  from  that  of  the  cor- 
responding strong,  or  stressed,  syllable.      Of.  weak  and 
strong  my  in  "  I  want  my  large  hat "  and   "  I  want 
my  hat." 

(2)  An  open  syllable  ends  in  a  vowel  or  diphthong : 
de-man,  to  deem;  3u,  thou ;  sea-can,  to  shake;  dee-ges,  by 
day.      A  closed  syllable  ends  in  one  or  more  conso- 
nants :  Sing,  thing;  god,  good;  glaed,  glad. 

(3)  A  syllable  is  long  (a)  if  it  contains  a  long  vowel 
or  a  long  diphthong:   dri-fan,  to  drive;  lu-can,  to  lock; 
slae-pan,  to  sleep;  ceo-san,  to  choose ;  (6)  if  its  vowel  or 
diphthong  is  followed  by  more  than  one  consonant : J 
creeft,   strength;    heard,   hard;    lib-ban,    to   live;    feal-lan, 

1  Taken  separately,  every  syllable  ending  in  a  single  consonant  is 
long.  It  may  be  said,  therefore,  that  all  closed  syllables  are  long; 
but  in  the  natural  flow  of  language,  the  single  final  consonant  of  a 
syllable  so  often  blends  with  a  following  initial  vowel,  the  syllable 
thus  becoming  open  and  short,  that  such  syllables  are  not  recognized 
as  prevailingly  long.  Cf.  Modern  English  at  all  (  =  a-tall} . 


Sounds.  9 

to  fall.      Otherwise,  the  syllable  is  short:    8e,  which; 
be-ran,  to  bear ;  Saet,  that ;  gie-fan,  to  give. 

NOTE  1.  —  A  single  consonant  belongs  to  the  following  syllable: 
ha-lig,  holy  (not  hal-ig) ;  wrl-tan,  to  write ;  fee-der,  father. 

NOTE  2.  —  The  student  will  notice  that  the  syllable  may  be  long  and 
the  vowel  short;  but  the  vowel  cannot  be  long  and  the  syllable  short. 

NOTE  8.  —  Old  English  short  vowels,  occurring  in  open  syllables, 
have  regularly  become  long  in  Modern  English :  we-fan,  to  weave ; 
e-tan,  to  eat;  ma-cian.  to  make;  na-cod,  naked;  a-can,  to  ache; 
o-fer,  over.  And  Old  English  long  vowels,  preceding  two  or  more 
consonants,  have  generally  been  shortened :  breost,  breast ;  heelS, 
health;  slaepte,  slept;  leedde,  led. 

• 

Accentuation. 

11.  The  accent  in  Old  English  falls  usually  on  the 
radical  syllable,  never  on  the  inflectional  ending : 
briiigan,  to  bring ;  stanas,  stones;  b^rende,  bearing;  fdelnes, 
idleness;  freondscipe,  friendship. 

But  in  the  case  of  compound  nouns,  adjectives,  and 
adverbs  the  first  member  of  the  compound  (unless  it 
be  ge-  or  be-)  receives  the  stronger  stress :  h^ofon-rlce, 
heaven-kingdom;  <$nd-giet,  intelligence;  soS-feest,  truthful; 
g6d-cund,  divine;  6all-unga,  entirely;  bliSe-Uce,  blithely. 
But  be-hat.  promise;  ge-bed,  prayer;  ge-fealic,  joyous; 
be-s6ne,  immediately. 

Compound  verbs,  however,  have  the  stress  on  the 
radical  syllable  :  for-giefan,  to  forgive;  of-llnnan,  to  cease; 
a-cnawan,  to  knoiv  ;  wiS-stcjndan,  to  withstand;  on-sacan, 
to  resist. 

NOTE.  —  The  tendency  of  nouns  to  take  the  stress  on  the  prefix, 
while  verbs  retain  it  on  the  root,  is  exemplified  in  many  Modern 
English  words:  preference,  prefer;  contract  (noun),  contract  (verb); 
abstinence,  abstain;  perfume  (noun),  perfume  (verb). 


10  Introduction. 

CHAPTER   III. 

INFLECTIONS. 
Cases. 

12.  There  are  five  cases  in  Old  English :  the  nomi- 
native, the  genitive,  the  dative,  the  accusative,  and 
the  instrumental.1  Each  of  them,  except  the  nomi- 
native, may  be  governed  by  prepositions.  When  used 
without  prepositions,  they  have,  in  general,  the  fol- 
lowing functions: 

(a)  The  nominative,  as  in  Modern  English,  is  the 
case  of  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb. 

(6)  The  genitive  (the  possessive  case  of  Modern 
English)  is  the  case  of  the  possessor  or  source.  It 
may  be  called  the  of  case. 

(c)  The  dative  is  the  case  of  the  indirect  object. 
It  may  be  called  the  to  or  for  case. 

(d)  The  accusative  (the  objective  case  of   Modern 
English)  is  the  case  of  the  direct  object. 

(e)  The  instrumental,  which  rarely  differs  from  the 
dative  in  form,  is  the  case  of  the  means  or  the  method. 
It  may  be  called  the  with  or  by  case. 

The  following  paradigm  of  muS,  the  mouth,  illus- 
trates the  several  cases  (the  article  being,  for  the 
present,  gratuitously  added  in  the  Modern  English 
equivalents)  : 

i  Most  grammars  add  a  sixth  case,  the  vocative.  But  it  seems 
best  to  consider  the  vocative  as  only  a  function  of  the  nominative 
form. 


Inflections.  11 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.    muS  =  the  mouth.  muS-as  =  the  mouths. 

G.     mu3-es  l  =  of    the    mouth  muS-a  =  of  the  mouths. 

(=  the  mouth's).  (  —  the  mouths'). 

D.     muS-e=£o  or  for  the  mouth.  muS-um  =  to  or  for  the  mouths. 

A.    muS  =  the  mouth.  mu3-as  =  the  mouths. 

I.     muSe  =  with  or  by  means  of  mu3-um  =  with  or  by  means  of 

the  mouth.  the  mouths. 

Gender. 

13.  The  gender  of  Old  English  nouns,  unlike  that 
of  Modern  English,  depends  partly  on  meaning  and 
partly  on  form,  or  ending.  Thus  muS,  mouth,  is  mas- 
culine ;  tunge,  tongue,  feminine ;  cage,  eye,  neuter. 

No  very  comprehensive  rules,  therefore,  can  be  given  ; 
but  the  gender  of  every  noun  should  be  learned  with 
its  meaning.  Gender  will  be  indicated  in  the  vocabu- 
laries by  the  different  gender  forms  of  the  definite 
article,  se  for  the  masculine,  sgo  for  the  feminine,  and 
Seet  for  the  neuter :  se  muS,  seo  tunge,  Seet  cage  =  the 
mouth,  the  tongue,  the  eye. 

All  nouns  ending  in  -dom,  -had,  -scipe,  or  -ere  are 
masculine  (cf.  Modern  English  wisdom,  childhood, 
friencU&tjp,  worker).  Masculine,  also,  are  nouns  end- 
ing in  -a. 

Those  ending  in  -nes  or  -ung  are  feminine  (cf.  Mod- 

1  Of  course  our  "apostrophe  and  s"  (='s)  comes  from  the  Old 
English  genitive  ending  -es.  The  e  is  preserved  in  Wednesday  (  =  01d 
English  Wodnes  deeg).  But  at  a  very  early  period  it  was  thought 
that  John's  book,  for  example,  was  a  shortened  form  of  John  his  book. 
Thus  Addison  (Spectator,  No.  135)  declares  's  a  survival  of  his.  How, 
then,  would  he  explain  the  s  of  his?  And  how  would  he  dispose  of 
Mary's  book  ? 


12  Introduction. 

era  English  goodness,  and  gerundial  forms  in  -ing:  see- 
ing  is  belie ving}. 

Thus  se  wisdom,  wisdom;  se  cildhad,  childhood;  se 
freondscipe,  friendship  ;  se  fiscere,  fisher  (man) ;  se  hunta, 
hunter;  seo  gelicnes,  likeness ;  seo  leornung,  learning. 

Declensions. 

14.  There  are  two  great  systems  of  declension  in 
Old  English,  the  Vowel  Declension  and  the  Consonant 
Declension.  A  noun  is  said  to  belong  to  the  Vowel 
Declension  when  the  final  letter  of  its  stem  is  a  vowel, 
this  vowel  being  then  known  as  the  stem-characteristic; 
but  if  the  stem-characteristic  is  a  consonant,  the  noun 
belongs  to  the  Consonant  Declension.  There  might 
have  been,  therefore,  as  many  subdivisions  of  the 
Vowel  Declension  in  Old  English  as  there  were  vow- 
els, arid  as  many  subdivisions  of  the  Consonant  De- 
clension as  there  were  consonants.  All  Old  English 
nouns,  however,  belonging  to  the  Vowel  Declension, 
ended  their  stems  originally  in  a,  6,  i,  or  u.  Hence 
there  are  but  four  subdivisions  of  the  Vowel  Decjen- 
sion  :  a-stems,  6-stems,  i-stems,  and  u-stems. 

The  Vowel  Declension  is  commonly  called  the  Strong 
Declension,  and  its  nouns  Strong  Nouns. 

NOTE. — The  terms  Strong  and  "Weak  were  first  used  by  Jacob 
Grimm  (1785-1863)  in  the  terminology  of  verbs,  and  thence  trans- 
ferred to  nouns  and  adjectives.  By  a  Strong  Verb,  Grimm  meant  one 
that  could  form  its  preterit  out  of  its  own  resources  ;  that  is,  without 
calling  in  the  aid  of  an  additional  syllable  :  Modern  English  run,  ran  ; 
find,  found;  but  verbs  of  the  Weak  Conjugation  had  to  borrow,  as  it 
were,  an  inflectional  syllable:  gain,  gained;  help,  helped. 


Inflections.  13 

15.  The  stems  of  nouns  belonging  to  the  Consonant 
Declension  ended,  with  but  few  exceptions,  in  the  let- 
ter n  (cf.  Latin  homin-em,  ration-em,  Greek  7rot/*ei>-a) . 
They    are    called,  therefore,   n-stems,   the    Declension 
itself  being  known  as  the  n-Declension,  or  the  Weak 
Declension.     The  nouns,  also,  are  called  Weak  Nouns. 

16.  If   every  Old  English  noun  had  preserved  the 
original  Germanic  stem-characteristic    (or   final   letter 
of  the  stem),  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  deciding 
at  once  whether  any  given  noun  is  an  a-stem,  6-stem, 
i-stem,  u-stem,  or  n-stem;  but  these  final  letters  had, 
for  the  most  part,  either  been  dropped,  or  fused  with 
the   case-endings,    long   before   the  period   of   historic 
Old  English.      It  is  only,  therefore,  by  a  rigid  com- 
parison of  the  Germanic  languages  with  one  another, 
and    with    the    other  Aryan   languages,    that   scholars 
are  able  to  reconstruct  a  single  Germanic  language, 
in  which  the  original  stem-characteristics  may  be  seen 
far  better  than  in  any  one  historic  branch  of  the  Ger- 
manic group  (§5,  Note). 

This  hypothetical  language,  which  bears  the  same 
ancestral  relation  to  the  historic  Germanic  dialects 
that  Latin  bears  to  the  Romance  tongues,  is  known 
simply  as  Germanic  (Gmc.),  or  as  Primitive  G-ermanic. 
Ability  to  reconstruct-  Germanic  forms  is  not  ex- 
pected of  the  students  of  this  book,  but  the  follow- 
ing table  should  be  examined  as  illustrating  the 
basis  of  distinction  among  the  several  Old  English 
declensions  (O.E.  =  Old  English,  Mn.E.  =  Modern 
English) : 


14 


Introduction. 


Strong  or  Vowel  De- 
clensions 


II.  Consonant  Declensions 


(1)  a-stems 


(2)  6-stems 


(3)    i-stems 


(1)  n-stems       (Weak 
Declension) 


C  Gmc. 
j  O.E. 


Gmc.   staina-z, 
O.E.     stan, 
Mn.E.  stone. 
Gmc.   hallo, 
O.E.     heall, 
Mn.E.  hall. 
Gmc.   boni-z, 
O.E.    ben, 
Mn.E.  boon. 
(  Gmc.   sunu-z, 
(4)  u-stems  j  O.E.     sunu, 
I  Mn.E.  son. 

tungon-iz, 
tung-an, 
I  Mn.E.  tongue-s. 
Gmc.  fot-iz, 
O.E.    fet, 
Mn.E.  /ee«. 
Gmc.  frijond-iz 
O.E.    friend, 
Mn.E.  friend-s. 

(Gmc.  brotir-is, 
O.E.  broSor, 
Mn.E.  brother-s. 

NOTE.  —  "It will  be  seen  that  if  Old  English  cage,  eye,  is  said  to  be 
an  n-stem,  what  is  meant  is  this,  that  at  some  former  period  the  kernel 
of  the  word  ended  in  -n,  while,  as  far  as  the  Old  English  language 
proper  is  concerned,  all  that  is  implied  is  that  the  word  is  inflected 
in  a  certain  manner."  (Jespersen,  Progress  in  Language,  §  109). 

This  is  true  of  all  Old  English  stems,  whether  Vowel  or  Consonant 
The  division,  therefore,  into  a-stems,  6-stems,  etc.,  is  made  in  th-s 
interests  of  grammar  as  well  as  of  philology. 

Conjugations. 

17.  There  are,  likewise,  two  systems  of  conjugation 
in  Old  English :  the  Strong  or  Old  Conjugation,  and 
the  Weak  or  New  Conjugation. 


(2)  Remnants  of 
other  Con- 
sonant De- 
clensions 


(6) 


Inflections. 


15 


The  verbs  of  the  Strong  Conjugation  (the  so-called 
Irregular  Verbs  of  Modern  English)  number  about 
three  hundred,  of  which  not  one  hundred  remain  in 
Modern  English  (§  101,  Note).  They  form  their  pret- 
erit and  frequently  their  past  participle  by  changing 
the  radical  vowel  of  the  present  stem.  This  vowel 
change  or  modification  is  called  ablaut  (pronounced 
dhp-lowt)  :  Modern  English  sing,  sang,  sung ;  rise,  rose, 
risen.  As  the  radical  vowel  of  the  preterit  plural  is 
often  different  from  that  of  the  preterit  singular,  there 
are  four  principal  parts  or  tense  stems  in  an  Old 
English  strong  verb,  instead  of  the  three  of  Modern 
English.  The  four  principal  parts  in  the  conju- 
gation of  a  strong  verb  are  (1)  the  present  indica- 
tive, (2)  the  preterit  indicative  singular,  (3)  the 
preterit  indicative  plural,  and  (4)  the  past  participle. 

Strong  verbs  fall  into  seven  groups,  illustrated  in 
the  following  table : 


PRESENT. 

PRET.  SING. 

PRET.  PLUK. 

PAST  PARTICIPLE. 

I. 

Bitan,  to  bite  : 

Ic  bit-e,  /  bite  or 
shall  bite.1 

Ic    bat,   J 

bit. 

W§    bit-on, 

we  bit. 

Ic  haebbe  ge2-bit- 
en,  /  have  bitten. 

II. 

Beodan,  to  bid: 

Ic  beod-e,  I  bid  or 

shall  bid. 

Ic  bead,  I 

bade. 

We  bud-on, 

toe  bade. 

Ic  haebbe  ge-bod- 
en,  /  have  bidden. 

1  Early  West  Saxon  had  no  distinctive  form  for  the  future.     The 
present  was  used  both  as  present  proper  and  as  future.     Cf.  Modern 
English  "I  go  home  tomorrow,"  or  "I  am  going  home  tomorrow" 
for  "I  shall  go  home  tomorrow." 

2  The  prefix  ge-  (Middle  English  y-),  cognate  with  Latin  co  (con) 
and  implying  completeness  of  action,  was  not  always  used.     It  never 


16 


Introduction. 


PRESENT. 

PEET.  SING. 

PRET.  PLUB. 

PAST  PARTICIPLE. 

III. 

Bindan,  to  bind  : 

Ic  bind-e,  /  bind  or 
shall  bind. 

Ic  bpnd,  / 
6o?md. 

We  bund-on, 

we  bound. 

Ic  heebbe  ge-bund- 
en,  I  have  bound. 

IV. 

Beran,  to  bear  : 

Ic  ber-e,  /  bear  or 
shall  bear. 

Ic  beer,  / 

bore. 

We  beer-ou, 

we  bore. 

Ic  heebbe  ge-bor- 
en,  I  ham  I  orne. 

V. 

Metan,  to  measure: 

Icmet-e,  [measure 
or  shall  measure. 

Ic  meet,  / 

measured. 

We  meet-on, 

we  measured. 

Ic  heebbe  ge-met- 
en,   /  have   meas- 

VI. 

ured. 

Faran,  to  go  : 

Ic    far-e,   /  go   or 

shall  go. 

Ic    for,    / 

went. 

We  for-on, 

we  went. 

Ic  eom1  ge-far-en, 

I  have  (am}  gone. 

VII. 

Feallan,  to  fall  : 

Ic  feall  e,  I  fall  or 
shall  fall. 

Ic  feoll,  7 

fell. 

We  feoll-on, 
we  fell. 

Ic  eom1  ge-f  eall-en, 
/  have  (am)  fallen. 

18.  The  verbs  of  the  Weak  Conjugation  (the  so-called 
Regular  Verbs  of  Modern  English)  form  their  preterit 

occurs  in  the  past  participles  of  compound  verbs :  ob-feallan,  to  fall 
off,  past  participle  ob-feallen  (not  ob-gefeallen).  Milton  errs  in 
prefixing  it  to  a  present  participle : 

"  What  needs  my  Shakespeare,  for  his  honour'd  bones, 
The  labour  of  an  age  in  piled  stones? 
Or  that  his  hallow'd  reliques  should  be  hid 
Under  a  star-ypointing  pyramid." 

—  Epitaph  on  William  Shakespeare. 

And  Shakespeare  misuses  it  in  "  Y-ravished,"  a  preterit  (Pericles  III, 
Prologue  1.  35). 

It  survives  in  the  archaic  y-clept  (Old  English  ge-clypod,  called). 
It  appears  as  a  in  aware  (Old  English  ge-weer),  as  e  in  enough  (Old 
English  ge-noh),  and  as  i  in  handiwork  (Old  English  hand-ge-weorc). 
1  With  intransitive  verbs  denoting  change  of  condition,  the  Old 
English  auxiliary  is  usually  some  form  of  to  be  rather  than  to  have. 
See  §  139. 


Inflections. 


17 


and  past  participle  by  adding  to  the  present  stem  a  suffix 1 
with  d  or  t :  Modern  English  love,  loved ;  sleep,  slept. 

The  stem  of  the  preterit  plural  is  never  different 
from  the  stem  of  the  preterit  singular ;  hence  these 
verbs  have  only  three  distinctive  tense-stems,  or  prin- 
cipal parts:  viz.,  (1)  the  present  indicative,  (2)  the 
preterit  indicative,  and  (3)  the  past  participle. 

Weak  verbs  fall  into  three  groups,  illustrated  in 
the  following  table : 


PRESENT. 


PRETERIT. 


PAST  PARTICIPLE. 


Frf mman,  to  perform  : 
Ic  frf  mm-e,  /  perform 
or  shall  perform. 

II. 

Bodian,  to  proclaim : 
Ic  bodi-e,  /  proclaim 
or  shall  proclaim. 

III. 

Habban,  to  have : 
Ic  haebbe,  /  have  or 
shall  have. 


Ic  fr^m-ede,  I  per- 
formed. 


Ic  bod-ode,  I  pro- 
claimed. 


Ic  haef-de,  /  had. 


Ic  haebbe  ge-fr^m-ed, 
/  have  performed. 


Ic  haebbe  ge-bod-od, 

/  have  proclaimed.   . 


Ic  haebbe  ge-haef-d,  / 

have  had. 


19.  There  remain  a  few  verbs  (chiefly  the  Auxiliary 
Verbs  of  Modern  English)  that  do  not  belong  entirely  to 
either  of  the  two  conjugations  mentioned.  The  most 
important  of  them  are,  Ic  maeg  I  may,  Ic  mihte  I  might ; 
Ic  0911  T  can,  Ic  cuSe  I  could ;  Ic  mot  I  must,  Ic  moste  I 

1  The  theory  that  loved,  for  example,  is  a  fused  form  of  love-did 
has  been  generally  given  up.  The  dental  ending  was  doubtless  an 
Indo-Germanic  suffix,  which  became  completely  specialized  only  in 
the  Teutonic  languages. 


18  Introduction. 

must;  Ic  sceal  I  shall,  Ic  sceolde  I  should ,  Ic  eom  I  am, 
Ic  was  I  ivas;  Ic  wille  /  will,  Ic  wolde  /  would;  Ic  do 
I  do,  Ic  dyde  I  did ;  Ic  §a  /#<?,  Ic  eode  I  went. 

All  but  the  last  four  of  these  are  known  as  Preterit- 
Present  Verbs.  The  present  tense  of  each  of  them 
is  in  origin  a  preterit,  in  function  a  present.  Of. 
Modern  English  ought  (=  owed). 


CHAPTER   IV. 

ORDER  OF  WORDS. 

20.  The  order  of  words  in  Old  English  is  more 
like  that  of  Modern  German  than  of  Modern  English. 
Yet  it  is  only  the  Transposed  order  that  the  student 
will  feel  to  be  at  all  un-English ;  and  the  Transposed 
order,  even  before  the  period  of  the  Norman  Conquest, 
was  fast  yielding  place  to  the  Normal  order. 

The  three  divisions  of  order  are  (1)  Normal,  (2) 
Inverted,  and  (3)  Transposed. 

(1)  Normal  order  =  subject  +  predicate.      In   Old 
English,  the   Normal  order  is  found  chiefly   in  inde- 
pendent  clauses.       The  predicate    is    followed   by   its 
modifiers :    Se  hwael   bi3   micle   laessa   Jjonne   63re  hwalas. 
That  whale  is  much  smaller  than  other  whales;  Qad  hg 
geseah  twa  scipu,  And  he  saw  two  ships. 

(2)  Inverted  order  =  predicate  +  subject.     This  order 
occurs  also  in   independent  clauses,  and  is  employed 
(a)  when  some  modifier  of  the  predicate  precedes  the 
predicate,   the    subject    being   thrown    behind.      The 


Order  of  Words.  19 

words  most  frequently  causing  Inversion  in  Old  Eng- 
lish prose  are  pa.  then,  bonne  then,  and  b*r  there :  Da  for 
he,  Then  went  he;  Donne  aernaS  hy  ealle  toweard  baem 
feo,  Then  gallop  they  all  toward  the  property ;  ac  beer 
biS  medo  genoh,  but  there  is  mead  enough. 

Inversion  is  employed  (6)  in  interrogative  sentences: 
Lufast  Su  me?  Lovest  thou  mef  and  (<?)  in  imperative 
sentences:  Cume  Sin  rice,  Thy  kingdom  come. 

(3)  Transposed  order  =  subject  .  .  .  predicate.  That 
is,  the  predicate  comes  last  in  the  sentence,  being  pre- 
ceded by  its  modifiers.  This  is  the  order  observed  in 
dependent  clauses:1  Donne  cymeS  se  man  se  beet  swift  - 
oste  hors  hafaS,  Then  comes  the  man  that  has  the  swiftest 
horse  (literally,  that  the  siviftest  horse  has);  Ne  mette  he 
ser  nan  gebun  land,  sibban  he  fr9m  his  agnum  ham  for,  Nor 
did  he  before  find  any  cultivated  land,  after  he  went  from 
his  own  home  (literally,  after  he  from  his  own  home  went). 

21.  Two  other  peculiarities  in  the  order  of  words 
require  a  brief  notice. 

(1)  Pronominal  datives  and  accusatives  usually  pre- 
cede the  predicate  :  He  hine  oferwann.  He  overcame  him 
(literally,  He  him  overcame)',  Dryhten  him  andwyrde, 
The  Lord  ansivered  him.  But  substantival  datives  and 
accusatives,  as  in  Modern  English,  follow  the  predicate. 

1  But  in  the  Voyages  of  Ohthere  and  Wulfstan,  in  which  the  style 
is  apparently  more  that  of  oral  than  of  written  discourse,  the  Normal 
is  more  frequent  than  the  Transposed  order  in  dependent  clauses.  In 
his  other  writings  Alfred  manifests  a  partiality  for  the  Transposed 
order  in  dependent  clauses,  except  in  the  case  of  substantival  clauses 
introduced  by  baet.  Such  clauses  show  a  marked  tendency  to  revert 
to  their  Normal  oratio  recta  order.  The  norm  thus  set  by  the  indirect 
affirmative  clause  seems  to  have  proved  an  important  factor  in  the 


20  Introduction. 

The  following  sentence  illustrates  both  orders  :  Hy 
genamon  Joseph,  Qnd  hine  gesealdon  cipen^nnum,  9nd  hy 
hine  gesealdon  in  Egypta  Iqnd,  They  took  Joseph,  and  sold 
him  to  merchants,  and  they  sold  him  into  Egypt  (literally, 
They  took  Joseph,  and  him  sold  to  merchants,  and  they 
him  sold  into  Egyptians'1  land). 

NOTE. — The  same  order  prevails  in  the  case  of  pronominal  nomi- 
natives used  as  predicate  nouns :  Ic  hit  eom,  It  is  I  (literally,  /  it  am); 
Du  hit  eart,  It  is  thou  (literally,  Thou  it  art). 

(2)  The  attributive  genitive,  whatever  relationship 
it  expresses,  usually  precedes  the  noun  which  it  quali- 
fies: Breoton  is  garsecges  igland,  Britain  is  an  island  of 
the  ocean  (literally,  ocean's  island);  Swilce  hit  is  eac 
berende  on  w^cga  orum,  Likeivise  it  is  also  rich  in  ores 
of  metals  (literally,  metals'  ores') ;  Cyninga  cyning,  King 
of  kings  (literally,  Kings'  king) ;  Ge  witon  Godes  rices 
geryne,  Ye  know  the  mystery  of  the  kingdom  of  G-od 
(literally,  Ye  know  G-od' 8  kingdom's  mystery}. 

A  preposition  governing  the  word  modified  by  the 
genitive,  precedes  the  genitive : J  On  ealdra  manna 
ssegenum,  In  old  men's  sayings  ;  JEt  Qsera  streeta  fndum, 
At  the  ends  of  the  streets  (literally,  At  the  streets' 
ends) ;  For  ealra  Slnra  halgena  lufan,  For  all  thy  saints' 
love.  See,  also,  §  94,  (5). 

ultimate  disappearance  of  Transposition  from  dependent  clauses.  The 
influence  of  Norman  French  helped  only  to  consummate  forces  that 
were  already  busily  at  work. 

1  The  positions  of  the  genitive  are  various.  It  frequently  follows 
its  noun:  pa  beam  para  ASeniensa.  The  children  of  the  Athenians. 
It  may  separate  an  adjective  and  a  noun  :  An  lytel  sees  earm,  A  little 
arm  of  (the)  sea.  The  genitive  may  here  be  construed  as  an  adjec- 
tive, or  part  of  a  compound  =  A  little  sea-arm;  Mid  m9negum 
Godes  gifum.  With  many  God-gifts  ;=  many  divine  gifts. 


Practical  Suggestions.  21 

CHAPTER   V. 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

22.  In  the  study  of  Old  English,  the  student  must 
remember  that  he  is  dealing  not  with  a  foreign  or 
isolated  language  but  with  the  earlier  forms  of  his  own 
mother  tongue.  The  study  will  prove  profitable  and 
stimulating  in  proportion  as  close  and  constant  com- 
parison is  made  of  the  old  with  the  new.  The  guiding 
principles  in  such  a  comparison  are  reducible  chiefly  to 
two.  These  are  (1)  the  regular  operation  of  phonetic 
laws,  resulting  especially  in  certain  Vowel  Shiftings, 
and  (2)  the  alterations  in  form  and  syntax  that  are 
produced  by  Analogy. 

(1)  "The    former  of    these   is   of    physiological    or 
natural  origin,  and  is  perfectly  and  inflexibly  regular 
throughout   the    same   period   of   the  same  language; 
and   even   though   different   languages  show  different 
phonetic   habits   and   predilections,   there  is   a   strong 
general  resemblance  between  the  changes  induced  in 
one  language  and  in  another;  many  of  the  particular 
laws  are  true  for  many  languages. 

(2)  "  The  other  principle  is  psychical,  or  mental,  or 
artificial,  introducing  various  more    or  less  capricious 
changes  that  are  supposed  to  be  emendations;  and  its 
operation  is,  to  some  extent,  uncertain  and  fitful."  l 

1  Skeat,  Principles  of  English  Etymology,  Second  Series,  §  342. 
But  Jespersen,  with  Collitz  and  others,  stoutly  contests  "the  theory 
of  sound  laws  and  analogy  sufficing  between  them  to  explain  every- 
thing in  linguistic  development." 


22 


Introduction. 


(1)  Vowel-Shif tings. 

23.  It  will  prove  an  aid  to  the  student  in  acquiring 
the  inflections  and  vocabulary  of  Old  English  to  note 
carefully  the  following  shiftings  that  have  taken  place 
in  the  gradual  growth  of  the  Old  English  vowel  system 
into  that  of  Modern  English. 

(1)  As  stated  in  §  3,  the  Old  English  inflectional 
vowels,  which  were  all  short  and  unaccented,  weakened 
in  early  Middle  English  to  e.  This  e  in  Modern  Eng- 
lish is  frequently  dropped : 


OLD  ENGLISH. 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH. 

MODERN  ENGLISH. 

stan-as 

ston-es 

stones 

sun-u 

sun-e 

son 

sun-a 

sun-e 

sons 

ox-an 

ox-en 

oxen 

swift-ra 

swift-er 

swifter 

swift-ost 

swift-est 

swiftest 

I6c-ode 

lok-ede 

looked 

(2)  The  Old  English  long  vowels  have  shifted  their 
phonetic  values  with  such  uniform  regularity  that  it  is 
possible  in  almost  every  case  to  infer  the  Modern  Eng- 
lish sound  ;  but  our  spelling  is  so  chaotic  that  while  the 
student  may  infer  the  modern  sound,  he  cannot  always 
infer  the  modern  symbol  representing  the  sound. 


OLD  ENGLISH.         MODERN  ENGLISH. 


o  (as  in  no"*1 


na  =  no  ;  stan  =  stone ;  ban  = 
bone;  rad=roa(Z;  £c  =  oak; 
hal  =  whole  ;  ham  =  home.; 
sawan  =  to  sow;  gast  = 
ghost. 


1  But  Old  English  a  preceded  by  w  sometimes  gives  Modern  English 
o  as  in  two :  twa  =  two  ;  hwa  =  who  ;  hwam  =  whom. 


Practical  Suggestions. 


23 


OLD  ENGLISH. 


MODERN  ENGLISH. 


e  (as  in  he) 


i  (y)  (as  in  mine) 


o  (as  in  do) 


ou  (ow)  (as  in  thou) 


ae,  ea.  eo 


ea  (as  in  sea) 


I  he  —  he  ;  we  —  we  ;  8e  =  thee  ; 

werig  =  iceary ;  gelefan  =  /<. 

(.  believe  ;  gSs  =  geese. 
min  =  mine  ;  Sin  =  thine ;  wir 
=  wire  ;  mys  =  mice  ;  rim  = 
rime  (wrongly  spelt  rhyme); 
If  a  =  lice  ;  bi = by  ;  scinan = 
to  shine ;  stig-rap  =  sty-rope 
(shortened  to  stirrup,  stlgan 
meaning  to  mount). 

{Ao  —  I  do;  to  =  too,  to;  gos  = 
goose;  to9— tooth;  mona  = 
moon;  dom=doom;  mod  = 
mood;  wogian  =  to  woo; 
slob  =  /  slew. 

;'  9u=thou ;  ful  =foul;  bus  = 
house  ;  nu  =  now  ;  hu  =  how; 
tun = tote n  ;  ure  =  our  ;  ut= 
out;  tilud=loud;  3usend= 
thousand. 

se  -.    see  =  sea  ;  mael  =  meal  ; 

daelan  =  to  deal ;  claene  = 

clean  ;  graedig  —  greedy. 
ea  :   eare  =  ear  ;  east  =  east ; 

dream  =  dream ;  gear  —  year; 

beatan  =  to  beat. 
go :   Sreo  =  three  ;  drgorig  = 

dreary;  sgo=«Ae;  hreod= 

reed  ;  deop  =  deep. 


(2)  Analogy. 

24.  But  more  important  than  vowel  shifting  is  the 
great  law  of  Analogy,  for  Analogy  shapes  not  only 
words  but  constructions.  It  belongs,  therefore,  to 


24  Introduction. 

Etymology  and  to  Syntax,  since  it  influences  both  form 
and  function.  By  this  law,  minorities  tend  to  pass 
over  to  the  side  of  the  majorities.  "  The  greater 
mass  of  cases  exerts  an  assimilative  influence  upon 
the  smaller."1  The  effect  of  Analogy  is  to  simplify 
and  to  regularize.  "  The  main  factor  in  getting  rid 
of  irregularities  is  group-influence,  or  Analogy  —  the 
influence  exercised  by  the  members  of  an  association- 
group  on  one  another.  .  .  .  Irregularity  consists  in 
partial  isolation  from  an  association-group  through 
some  formal  difference."2 

Under  the  influence  of  Analogy,  entire  declensions 
and  conjugations  have  been  swept  away,  leaving  in 
Modern  English  not  a  trace  of  their  former  existence. 
There  are  in  Old  English,  for  example,  five  plural  end- 
ings for  nouns,  -as,  -a,  -e,  -u,  and  -an.  No  one  could  well 
have  predicted3  that  -as  (Middle  English  -es)  would 
soon  take  the  lead,  and  become  the  norm  to  which 
the  other  endings  would  eventually  conform,  for  there 
were  more  an-plurals  than  as-plurals ;  but  the  as- 
plurals  were  doubtless  more  often  employed  in  every- 
day speech.  Oxen  (Old  English  oxan)  is  the  sole  pure 
survival  of  the  hundreds  of  Old  English  an-plurals. 


1  Whitney,  Life  and  Growth  of  Language,  Chap.  IV. 

2  Sweet,  A  New  English  Grammar,  Part  I.,  §  535. 

8  As  Skeat  says  (§  22,  (2)),  Analogy  is  "fitful."  It  enables  us  to 
explain  many  linguistic  phenomena,  but  not  to  anticipate  them.  The 
multiplication  of  books  tends  to  check  its  influence  by  perpetuating 
the  forms  already  in  use.  Thus  Chaucer  employed  nine  en-plurals, 
and  his  influence  served  for  a  time  to  check  the  further  encroachment 
of  the  es-plurals.  As  soon  as  there  is  an  acknowledged  standard  in 
any  language,  the  operation  of  Analogy  is  fettered. 


Practical  Suggestions.  25 

No  group  of  feminine  nouns  in  Old  English  had  -es  as 
the  genitive  singular  ending ;  but  by  the  close  of  the 
Middle  English  period  all  feminines  formed  their 
genitive  singular  in  -es  (or  -s,  Modern  English  '«) 
after  the  analogy  of  the  Old  English  masculine  and 
neuter  nouns  with  es-genitives.  The  weak  preterits 
in  -ode  have  all  been  leveled  under  the  ed-forms,  and 
of  the  three  hundred  strong  verbs  in  Old  English 
more  than  two  hundred  have  become  weak. 

These  are  not  cases  of  derivation  (as  are  the  shifted 
vowels) :  Modern  English  -s  in  sons,  for  example,  could 
not  possibly  be  derived  from  Old  English  -a  in  suna,  or 
Middle  English  -e  in  sune  (§  23,  (1)).  They  are  cases 
of  replacement  by  Analogy. 

A  few  minor  examples  will  quicken  the  student's 
appreciation  of  the  nature  of  the  influence  exercised 
by  Analogy : 

(a)  The  intrusive  I  in  could  (Chaucer  always  wrote 
coud  or  coude)  is  due  to  association  with  would  and 
should,  in  each  of  which  I  belongs  by  etymological 
right. 

(6)  He  need  not  (for  He  needs  not}  is  due  to  the 
assimilative  influence  of  the  auxiliaries  may,  can,  etc., 
which  have  never  added  -s  for  their  third  person 
singular  (§  137). 

(<?)  I  am  friends  with  him,  in  which  friends  is  a 
crystalized  form  for  on  good  terms,  may  be  traced  to 
the  influence  of  such  expressions  as  He  and  I  are 
friends,  They  are  friends,  etc. 

(cT)  Such  errors  as  are  seen  in  runned,  seed,  gooses, 
ladder,  hisself,  says  I  (usually  coupled  with  says  he} 


26  Introduction. 

are  all  analogical  formations.  Though  not  sanctioned 
by  good  usage,  it  is  hardly  right  to  call  these  forms 
the  products  of  "false  analogy."  The  grammar  in- 
volved is  false,  because  unsupported  by  literary  usages 
and  traditions ;  but  the  analogy  on  which  these  forms 
are  built  is  no  more  false  than  the  law  of  gravitation 
is  false  when  it  makes  a  dress  sit  unconventionally. 


PAKT   II. 


ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 


THE  STRONG  OR  VOWEL  DECLENSIONS  OF  NOUNS. 

THE   a-DECLENSION. 

CHAPTER   VI. 

(a)  Masculine  cr-S terns. 

[O.E.,  M.E.,  and  Mn.E.  will  henceforth  be  used  for  Old  English,  Middle 
English,  and  Modern  English.  Other  abbreviations  employed  are  self- 
explaining.] 

25.  The  a-Declension,  corresponding  to  the  Second 
or   o-Declension    of    Latin    and    Greek,    contains    only 
(a)  masculine  and  (6)  neuter  nouns.     To  this  declen- 
sion belong  most  of  the  O.E.  masculine  and  neuter 
nouns  of  the  Strong  Declension.    At  a  very  early  period, 
many  of  the  nouns  belonging  properly  to  the  i-  and 
u-Declensions  began  to  pass  over  to  the  a-Declension. 
This  declension  may  therefore  be  considered  the  normal 
declension  for  all  masculine  and  neuter  nouns  belonging 
to  the  Strong  Declension. 

26.  Paradigms  of  ae   mu3,  mouth;  se   fiscere,  fisher- 
man ;  ae  hwael,  whale  ;  ae  mearh.  horse  ;  se  finger,  finger  : 

27 


28  Etymology  and  Syntax. 


Sing.  N.A. 
G. 
D.I. 

mu$ 
mfrS-es 
mir5-e 

fiscer-e 
fiscer-es 
fiscer-e 

hwsel 
hwsel-es 
hwael-e 

mearh 
mear-es 
mear-e 

finger 
fingr-es 
fingr-e 

Plur.  N.A. 
G. 
D.I. 

muiS-as 
mirS-a 
mu$-um 

fiscer-as 
fiscer-a 
fiscer-um 

hwal-as 
hwal-a 
hwal-um 

mear-as 
mear-a 
mear-um 

fingr-as 
fingr-a 
fingr-um 

NOTE.  — 

For  meanin 

gs  of  the 

cases,  see  § 

12.     The 

dative  and 

instrumental  are  alike  in  all  nouns. 

27.  The  student  will  observe  (1)  that  nouns  whose 
nominative  ends  in  -e  (fiscere)  drop  this  letter  before 
adding  the  case  endings ;  (2)  that  ee  before  a  consonant 
(hweel)  changes  to  a  in  the  plural ; l  (3)  that  h,  preceded 
by  r  (mearh)  or  1  (seolh,  seal),  is  dropped  before  an  inflec- 
tional vowel,  the  stem  diphthong  being  then  lengthened 
by  way  of  compensation ;   (4)  that  dissyllables  (finger ) 
having  the  first  syllable  long,  usually  syncopate  the  vowel 
of  the  second  syllable  before  adding  the  case  endings.2 

28.  Paradigm  of  the  Definite  Article3  se,  seo,  Saet  =  the: 

1  Adjectives  usually  retain  se  in  closed  syllables,  changing  it  to  a 
in  open  syllables:   hwaet  (active),  glaed  (glad),  waer  (wary)  have 
G.  hwates.   glades,  wares ;   D.  hwatum.   gladum.  warum ;   but 
A.  hwaetne,  glaedne.  weerne.     Nouns,  however,  change  to  a  only 
in  open  syllables  followed  by  a  guttural  vowel,  a  or  u.     The  se  in 
the  open  syllables  of  the  singular  is  doubtless  due  to  the  analogy 
of  the  N.A.  singular,  both  being  closed  syllables. 

2  Of.  Mn.E.  drizzling,  remembering,  abysmal  (abysm  =  abizum), 
sickening,  in  which  the  principle  of  syncopation  is  precisely  the  same. 

8  This  may  mean  four  things:  (1)  The,  (2)  That  (demonstrative), 
(3)  He,  she,  it,  (4)  Who,  which,  that  (relative  pronoun).  Mn.E.  de- 
monstrative that  is,  of  course,  the  survival  of  O.E.  neuter  Seet  in  its 
demonstrative  sense.  Professor  Victor  Henry  (Comparative  Grammar 
of  English  and  German,  §  160, 3)  sees  a  survival  of  dative  plural  demon- 
strative Saem  in  such  an  expression  as  in  them  days.  It  seems 
more  probable,  however,  that  them  so  used  has  followed  tb«  le?d  of 


Masculine  a.-Stems. 


29 


Masculine. 

Sing.  N.  se  (se) 

G.  Sses 

D.  Sjem  (Sam) 

A.  Sone 

/.  Sy,  Son 

Plur.  N.A. 
G. 
D. 


Feminine. 
seo 


"Ssere 
Sa 

Genders. 

«a 

"Sara 


Neuter. 

•Saet 

•Saes 

•Sasm  (Sam) 

•SjBt 

Sy,  Son 


(Sam) 


29. 


VOCABULARY.1 


se  bocere,  scribe  [boc]. 

s§  cyning,  fcutgr. 

se  daeg,  day. 

se  $nde.  end. 

se  fngel,  angel  [angelus]. 

se  freedom,  freedom. 

se  fugol  (G.  sometimes  fugles), 

/>u-d  [fowl]. 

se  gar,  spear  [gore,  gar- fish]. 
se  heofon,  heaven. 


se  hierde,  herdsman  [shep-herd]. 

pnd  (and),  «;«/. 

se  secg.  man,  warrior. 

se  seolh,  seal. 

se  stan,  ^one. 

se   •wealh,  foreigner,    Welshman 

[wal-nut]. 
se  w^eall,  wall. 
se  wisdom,  wisdom. 
se  wrilf, 


30.  EXERCISES. 

I.  1.  Dara  wulf a  mu<5as.  2.  Dees  fisceres  fingras.  3.  Dara 
Weala  cyninge.  4.  Dsem  ^nglum  ^nd  &em  hierdum.  5.  Dara 

this  and  these,  that  and  those,  in  their  double  function  of  pronoun  and 
adjective.  There  was  doubtless  some  such  evolution  as,  /  saw  them. 
Them  what  ?  Them  boys. 

An  unquestioned  survival  of  the  dative  singular  feminine  of  the 
article  is  seen  in  the  -ter  of  Atterbury  (=  set  Saere  byrig,  at  the  town); 
and  Seem  survives  in  the  -ten  of  Attenborough,  the  word  borough  having 
become  an  uninflected  neuter.  Skeat,  Principles,  First  Series,  §  185. 

1  The  brackets  contain  etymological  hints  that  may  help  the  student 
to  discern  relationships  otherwise  overlooked.  The  genitive  is  given 
only  when  not  perfectly  regular. 


30  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

daga  e_nde.  6.  Deem  bocerum  $nd  ftgem  se,cgum  Sees  cyninges. 
7.  Deem  seole  ond  Sseni  f  uglum.  8.  Da  stanas  ond  Sa  garas. 
9.  Hwala  ond  meara.  10.  Dara  e^ngla  wisdom.  11.  Dees 
cyninges  boceres  freodom.  12.  Dara  hierda  f  uglum.  13.  Dy 
stane.  14.  Deem  wealle. 

II.  1.  For  the  horses  and  the  seals.  2.  For  the  Welsh- 
men's freedom.  3.  Of  the  king's  birds.  4.  By  the  wis- 
dom of  men  and  angels.  5.  With  the  spear  and  the  stone. 
6.  The  herdsman's  seal  and  the  warriors'  spears.  7.  To 
the  king  of  heaven.  8.  By  means  of  the  scribe's  wisdom. 
9.  The  whale's  mouth  and  the  foreigner's  spear.  10.  For 
the  bird  belonging  to  (=  of)  the  king's  scribe.  11.  Of  that 
finger. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

(&)  Neuter  a-Stems. 

31.  The  neuter  nouns  of  the  a-Declension  differ  from 
the  masculines  only  in  the  N.A.  plural. 

32.  Paradigms  of  8aet  hof,  court,  dwelling  ;  Saet  beam, 
child ;   Seet  ban,   bone ;    Sect  rice,   kingdom ;    Seet  spere, 
spear  ;  Saet  werod,  band  of  men  ;  Seet  tungol,  star: 

Sing.  N.A.  hof       beam        ban       ric-e     sper-e     werod       tungol 

(?.  hof-es   bearn-es  ban-es  ric-es   sper-es   werod-es  tungl-es 
D.I.  hof-e     bearn-e     ban-e     ric-e     sper-e     werod-e     tungl-e 
Plur.N.A.  hof-u    beam       ban        rlc-u    sper-u    werod        tungl-u 
G.  hof-a    bearn-a    ban-a     rlc-a     sper-a     werod-a     tungl-a 
D.I.  hof-um  bearn-um  ban-urn  rlc-um  sper-um  werod-um  tungl-um 

33.  The  paradigms  show  (1)  that  monosyllables  with 
short  stems  (hof)  take  -u  in  the  N.A.  plural ;   (2)  that 


Neuter  a-Stems.  31 

monosyllables  with  long  stems  (beam,  ban)  do  not  distin- 
guish the  N. A.  plural  from  the  N.A.  singular; 1  (8)  that 
dissyllables  in  -e,  whether  the  stem  be  long  or  short  (rice, 
spere),  have  -u  in  the  N.A.  plural ;  (4)  that  dissyllables 
ending  in  a  consonant  and  having  the  first  syllable  short2 
( werod)  do  not  usually  distinguish  the  N.A.  plural  from 
the  N.A.  singular;  (5)  that  dissyllables  ending  in  a  con- 
sonant and  having  the  first  syllable  long  (tungol)  more 
frequently  take  -u  in  the  N.A.  plural. 

NOTE.  —  Syncopation  occurs  as  in  the  masculine  a-stems.  See 
§  27,  (4). 

34.   Present  and  Preterit  Indicative  of  habban,  to  have : 

PRESENT. 
Sing.  I.     Ic  haebbe,  I  have,  or  shall  have.* 

2.  Su  haefst  (hafast),  thou  hast,  or  wilt  have. 

3.  he,  heo,  hit  haefS  (hafaS),  he,  she,  it  has,  or  will  have. 
Plur.  1.     we  habbaS,  i>~e  have,  or  shall  have. 

2.  ge  habbaS.  ye  have,  or  will  have. 

3.  hie  habbaS,  they  have,  or  unll  have. 

PRETERIT. 

Sing.  1.  Ic  haefde.  I  had. 

2:  3u  haefdest,  thou  hadst. 

3.  he,  heo,  hit  haefde,  he,  she,  it  had. 

Plur.  1.  we  haefdon,  we  had. 

2.  ge  haefdon,  ye  had. 

3.  hie  haefdon,  they  had. 

1  Note  the  many  nouns  in  Mn.E.  that  are  unchanged  in  the  plural. 
These  are  either  survivals  of  O.E.  long  stems,  swine,  sheep,  deer,  folk, 
or  analogical  forms,  jish,  trout,  mackerel,  salmon,  etc. 

*  Dissyllables  whose  first  syllable  is  a  prefix  are,  of  course,  ex- 
cluded. They  follow  the  declension  of  their  last  member:  gebed, 
prayer,  gebedu,  prayers ;  gefeoht,  battle,  gefeoht,  battles. 

8  See  §  17,  Note  1.  Note  that  (as  in  hwael,  §  27,  (2))  ae  changes 
to  a  when  the  following  syllable  contains  a :  haebbe,  but  hafast. 


32  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

NOTE. — The  negative  ne,  not,  which  always  precedes  its  verb, 
contracts  with  all  the  forms  of  habban.  The  negative  loses  its  e, 
habban  its  h.  Ne  +  habban  =  nabban ;  Ic  ne  haebbe  =  Ic 
naebbe ;  Ic  ne  haefde  =  Ic  naefde.  etc.  The  negative  forms  may 
be  got,  therefore,  by  simply  substituting  in  each  case  n  for  h. 

35.  VOCABULARY. 


Saet  dael,  dale. 

Saet  deor,  animal  [deer1]. 

Saet  dor,  door. 

Saet  fast,  vessel  [vat]. 

Saet  fyr,  fire. 

Saet  gear,  year. 

Saet  geoc,  yoke. 

Saet  geset,  habitation  [set* 

tlement], 
Saet  heafod,  head. 


Saet  bus,  house. 

Saet  lie,  body  [lich-gate]. 

Saet  lim,  limb. 


on 


(with  dat.)  in. 
Saet  spor,  track. 
Saet  weepen,  weapon. 
Saet  wlf ,  wife,  woman. 
Saet  wite,  punishment. 
Saet  word,  word. 


36.  EXERCISES. 

I.  1.  He  hafaft  Sees  cyninges  beam.      2.  Da  Wealas  hab- 
batS  oa  speru.       3.  Da  wlf  habbaS  Sara  s^cga  waepnu.       4.  Du 
hsef st  tSone  f ugol  Qnd  tJset  hus  t5aes  hierdes.       5.  HaefS 2  heo 
«a  f atu 3  ?      6.  Hgef  de  he  Sees  wlf es  lie  on  Ssem  hof  e  ?      7.  He 
nsefde  Sses  wifes  lie ;  lie  haefde  Sees  deores  heafod.       8.  HaefS 
se  cyning  gesetu  on  Ssem  daele  ?      9.  Se  bocere  hsefS  tSa  seolas 
on  tSsem  huse.       10.  Ge  habbaS  freodom. 

II.  1.  They  have  yokes  and  spears.       2.  We  have  not  the 
vessels  in  the  house.       3.  He  had  fire  in  the  vessel.       4.  Did 
the  woman  have  (=  Had  the  woman)  the  children  ?      5.  The 
animal  has  the  body  of  the  woman's  child.       6.  I  shall  have 

1  The  old  meaning  survives  in  Shakespeare's  "  Rats  and  mice  and 
such  small  deer,"  King  Lear,  III,  4,  144. 

a  See  §  20,  (2),  (6).  «  See  §  27,  (2). 


The  o-Declension. 


33 


the  heads  of  the  wolves.  7.  He  and  she  have  the  king's 
rtouses.  8.  Have  not  (=  NabbaS)  the  children  the  warrior's 
weapons  ? 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

THE   6-DECLENS1ON. 

37.  The   6-Declension,   corresponding   to   the   First 
or   a-Declension   of   Latin   and   Greek,  contains   only 
feminine  nouns.     Many  feminine  i-stems  and  u-stems 
soon  passed  over  to  this  Declension.    The  6-Declension 
may,  therefore,  be  considered  the  normal  declension  for 
all  strong  feminine  nouns. 

38.  Paradigms  of  seo  giefu,  gift;  sgo  wund,  wound; 
seo  rod,  cross;  seo  leornung,  learning;  seo  sawol,  soul: 

Sing.  iV~.  gief-u 

G.  gief-e 

D.I.  gief-e 

A.  gief-e 

Plur.  N.A.   gief-a 
G.  gief-a 
D.  I.   gief-um 

39.  Note  (1)  that  monosyllables  with  short   stems 
(giefu)  take  u  in  the  nominative  singular ;    (2)  that 
monosyllables  with  long  stems  (wund,  rod)  present  the 
unchanged  stem  in  the  nominative  singular  ;  (3)  that 
dissyllables  are  declined  as  monosyllables,  except  that 
abstract  nouns  in  -ung  prefer  a  to  e  in  the  singular. 

NOTE.  —  Syncopation  occurs  as  in  masculine  and  neuter  a-stems. 
See  §  27,  (4). 


wund 

r5d 

leornung 

sawol 

wund-e 

rod-e 

leornung-a  (e) 

sawl-e 

vrund-e 

rod-e 

leornung-a  (e) 

sawl-e 

wund-e 

rod-e 

leornung-a  (e) 

sawl-e 

wund-a 

rod-a 

leornung-a 

sawl-a 

wund-a 

rod-a 

leornung-a 

sawl-a 

wund-nm 

rod-um 

leornung-um 

sawl-um 

34  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

40.  Present  and  Preterit  Indicative  of  beon  (wesan), 

to  be  : 

PRESENT  (first  form).        PRESENT  (second  form).  PRETERIT. 

Sing,  1.    Ic  eom                             1.    Ic  beom  1.    Ic  waes 

2.  ~5u  eart                            2.   M  bist  2.   flu  wsere 

3.  he  is                                3.   he  biS  3.    he  wges 
Plur.  1.    we  ]                                 1.    we  "I  1.   we  1 

2.  ge    [  sind  (on),  sint       2.    ge    I  beo$  2.   ge    \  wSron 

3.  hleJ                                 3.    MeJ  3.    hie  J 

NOTE  1.  —  The  forms  beom,  bist,  etc.  are  used  chiefly  as  future 
tenses  in  O.E.  They  survive  to-day  only  in  dialects  and  in  poetry. 
Farmer  Dobson,  for  example,  in  Tennyson's  Promise  of  May,  uses  be 
for  all  persons  of  the  present  indicative,  both  singular  and  plural ;  and 
there  be  is  frequent  in  Shakespeare  for  there  are.  The  Northern 
dialect  employed  aron  as  well  as  sindon  and  sind  for  the  present 
plural ;  hence  Mn.E.  are. 

NOTE  2.  —  Fusion  with  ne  gives  neom,  neart,  nis  for  the  present ; 
naes,  naere,  neeron  for  the  preterit. 

NOTE  3.  —  The  verb  to  be  is  followed  by  the  nominative  case,  as  in 
Mn.E. ;  but  when  the  predicate  noun  is  plural,  and  the  subject  a 
neuter  pronoun  in  the  singular,  the  verb  agrees  in  number  with  the 
predicate  noun.  The  neuter  singular  Saet  is  frequently  employed  in 
this  construction :  Deet  weeron  eall  Finnas,  They  were  all  Fins ; 
Daet  sind  fnglas,  They  are  angels;  Daet  waeroii  ?ngla  gastas. 
They  were  angels'  spirits. 

Notice,  too,  that  O.E.  writers  do  not  say  It  is  7,  It  is  thou,  but  1 
it  am,  Thou  it  art:  Ic  hit  eom,  3u  hit  eart.  See  §  21,  (1),  Note  1. 

41.  VOCABULARY. 


seo  brycg,  bridge. 

seo  costnung,  temptation. 

s§o  cwalu,  death  [quail,  quell]. 

s§o  for,  journey  [f aran] . 

seo  frofor,  consolation,  comfort. 


seo  geoguS,  youth. 
seo  glof,  glove. 
seo  halignes 1  holiness. 
seo  heall.  hall. 
her,  here. 


1  All  words  ending  in  -nes  double  the  -B  before  adding  the  case 
endings. 


The  i-Declension. 


35 


hwa,  icho? 

hweer,  ichere? 

seo  lufu,  love. 

seo     mearc,     boundary 

marches1]. 
seo  nied.  meed,  reward. 


[mark, 


seo  mildheortnes,  mild-hearted- 
ness,  mercy. 

seo  stow,  place  [stow  away] . 
Seer,  there. 
seo  Searf,  need. 
seo  wylf,  she  wolf. 


42.  EXERCISES. 

I.  1.  Hwser  is  <5sere  brycge  e^nde  ?       2.  Her  sind  Sara  rica 
mearca.       3.  Hwa  haefS  J>a  glof a  ?      4.  Daer  brS  Saim  cyninge 
frofre  tSearf.       5.  Seo  wund  is  on  <5sere  wylfe  heafde.       6.  We 
habbaS  costnunga.       7.  Hie  neeron  on  ^Ssere  healle.       8.  Ic 
hit  neom.       9.  Dset  wgeron  Wealas.       10.  Daet  sind  tJses  wif  es 
beam. 

II.  1.  We  shall  have  the  women's  gloves.       2.  Where  is 
the  place?       3.  He  will  be  in  the  hall.       4.  Those  (Daet) 
were  not  the  boundaries  of  the  kingdom.       5.  It  was  not  I. 
6.  Ye  are  not  the  king's  scribes.       7.  The  shepherd's  words 
are  full  (full  +  gen.)  of  wisdom  and  comfort.       8.  Where  are 
the  bodies  of  the  children?       9.  The  gifts  are  not  here. 
10.  Who-  has  the  seals  and  the  birds  ? 


CHAPTER   IX. 

THE   i-DECLENSION   AND   THE   u-DECLENSION. 
The  /-Declension.     (See  §  58.) 

43.  The  i-Declension,  corresponding  to  the  group  of 
i-stems  in  the  classical  Third  Declension,  contains  chiefly 
(a)  masculine  and  (5)  feminine  nouns.  The  N.A.  plural 
of  these  nouns  ended  originally  in  -e  (from  older  i). 

1  As  in  warden  of  the  marches* 


36  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

(a)  Masculine  /-Stems. 

44.  These  stems  have  almost  completely  gone  over 
to  the  a-Declension,  so  that  -as  is  more  common  than  -e 
as  the  N.A.  plural  ending,  whether  the  stem  is  long  or 
short.     The  short  stems  all  have  -e  in  the  N.A.  singular. 

45.  Paradigms  of  se  wyrm,  worm  ;  se  wine,  friend. 

Sing.  N.A.     wyrm  win-e 

Gr.     wyrm-es  win-es 

D.I.     wyrm-e  win-e 

Plur.  N.A.     wyrtn-as  win-as  (e) 

Gr.     wyrm-a  win-a 

D.I.     wyrm-um  win-um 

Names  of  Peoples. 

46.  The  only  i-stems  that  regularly  retain  -e  of  the 
N.A.  plural  are  certain  names  of  tribes  or  peoples  used 
only  in  the  plural. 

47.  Paradigms  of   Sa  £ngle,  Angles;   Sa   NorSymbre, 
Northumbrians;  3a  leode,  people : 

Plur.  N.A.    £ngle  NorSymbre  I6ode 

Gr.    £ngla  NorSymbra  Ifioda 

D.I.     ^nglum  NorSymbrum  leodum 

(6)  Feminine  /-Stems. 

48.  The  short  stems  (frfm-u)  conform  entirely  to  the 
declension  of  short  6-stems ;  long  stems  (cwen,  wyrt) 
differ  from  long  5-stems  in  having  no  ending  for  the 
A.  singular.     They  show,  also,  a  preference  for  -e  rather 
than  -a  in  the  N.A.  plural. 


The  u- Declension.  37 

49.  Paradigms  of  sgo  fr^m-u,  benefit;  sgo  cwgn,  woman, 
queen  [quean]  ;  sgo  wyrt,  root  [wort] : 

Sing.  N.  fre,m-u  cwen  wyrt 

G.  fre,m-e  cw6n-e  wyrt-e 

D.I.  fre.m-e  cwen-e  wyrt-e 

A.  fre,m-e  cwen  wyrt 

Plur.  N.A.     fr^m-a  cwen-e  (a)  wyrt-e  (a) 

(r.    fre,m-a  cwen-a  wyrt-a 

D.I.    fre,m-um  cwen-um  wyrt-um 

The  (/-Declension. 

50.  The  u-Declension,  corresponding  to  the  group  of 
u-stems  in  the  classical  Third  Declension,  contains  no 
neuters,  and  but  few  (a)  masculines  and  (6)  feminines. 
The  short-stemmed  nouns  of  both  genders  (sun-u,  dur-u) 
retain  the  final  u  of  the  N.A.  singular,  while  the  long 
stems  (feld,  hgnd)  drop  it.     The  influence  of  the  mas- 
culine a-stems  is  most  clearly  seen  in  the  long-stemmed 
masculines  of  the  u-Declension  (feld,  feld-es,  etc.). 

NOTE. — Note  the  general  aversion  of  all  O.E.  long  stems  to  final 
-u:  c/.  N.A.  plural  hof-u,  but  beam,  ban;  X.  singular  gief-u,  but 
wund,  rod ;  N.  singular  frem-u.  but  cwen,  wyrt ;  N.A.  singular 
sun-u.  dur-u,  but  feld,  hgnd. 

(a)  Masculine  {/-Stems. 

51.  Paradigms  of  sg  sun-u,  son;  ae  feld,  field: 


Sing.  N.A.     sun-u 

feld 

G.     sun-a 

feld-a  (es) 

D.  I.     sun-a 

f  eld-a  (e) 

Plur.  N.A.     sun-a 

feld-a  (as) 

G.     sun-a 

feld-a 

D.I.    sun-urn 

feld-utti 

38 


Etymology  and  Syntax. 


,  hand 


(&)  Feminine  (/-Stems. 

52.  Paradigms  of  seo  dur-u,  door  ;  seo 

Sing.  N.A.  dur-u  bond 

G.  dur-a  hond-a 

D.I.  dur-a  hond-a 

Plur.  N.A.  dur-a  hgnd-a 

G.  dur-a  hqnd-a 

D.I.  dur-um  hgnd-um 

53.  Paradigm  of   the  Third  Personal  Pronoun,  he, 
h6o,  hit  =  he,  she,  it  : 

Feminine.  Neuter. 

heo  bit 

hiere  his 

hiere  him 

hie  hit 


Masculine. 
Sing.  N.    he 
G.     his 
him 
hine,  hiene 


D. 
A. 


54. 


All  Genders. 

Plur.  N.A.  hie 

G.  hiera 

D.  him 

» 

VOCABULARY. 

(i-SxEMS.)  Sa  Seaxe.  Saxons. 


Be  cierr,  turn,  time  [char,  chare, 

chore]. 

seo  deed,  deed. 
se  deel,  part  [a  great  deal]. 
3a  Dene,  Danes. 
se  freondscipe,  friendship. 
seo  hyd,  sA;zw,  /«'c?e. 
8a  l^ndleode.  natives. 
3a  Mierce,  Mercians. 
3a  Rom  ware.  Romans. 


se  stede,  place  [in-stead  of]. 

(U-STEMS.) 


seo  flor,  ^oor. 

seo  iiosu,  nose. 

se  sumor  (C/'.  sumeres,  D.  su- 

mera),  summer. 
se  winter  ( #.  wintres,  Z).  win- 

tra),  winter. 
s§  vrudu,  wood,  forest. 
NOTE.  —  The  numerous  masculine  nouns  ending  in  -had,  —  cild- 
had  (childhood),  wifhad  (womanhood),  —  belong  to  the  u-stems  his- 
torically ;  but  they  have  all  passed  over  to  the  a-Declension. 


Present  Indicative  Endings  of  Strong  Verbs.       39 

55.  EXERCISES. 

I.  1.  Da  Seaxe  habbaS  Sees  deores  hyd  on  ftsem  wuda 
2.   Hwa   haefS   Sa   giefa?         3.    Da   Mierce    hie1    habbaS. 
4.   Hweer  is  Sses  Weales  fugol?        5.   Da  D^ne  hiene  hab- 
baS.        6.  Hwser  sindon  hiera  winas?       7.  Hie  sindon  on 
Sees  cyninges  wuda.        8.  Da  Komware  ond  <5a  Seaxe  haef- 
don  8a  garas  ond  8a  geocu.       9.  Heo  is  on  Seem  huse  on 
wintra,  gnd  on  Seem  feldum  on  sumera.         10.   Hwser  is 
tSaes  hofes  duru  ?        11.  Heo2  (=  seo  dura)  nis  her. 

II.  1.  His  friends  have  the  bones  of  the  seals  and  the 
bodies  of  the  Danes.      2.  Art  thou  the  king's  son?      3.  Has 
she  her3  gifts  in  her3  hands?     4.  Here  are  the  fields  of  the 
natives.       5.  Who  had  the  bird?      6.  I  had  it.2      7.   The 
child  had  the  worm  in  his3  fingers.      8.  The  Mercians  were 
here  during  (the)  summer  (on  +  dat.). 


CHAPTER   X. 
PRESENT  INDICATIVE  ENDINGS  OP  STRONG  VERBS. 

56.  The  unchanged  stem  of  the  present  indicative 
may  always  be  found  by  dropping  -an  of  the  infinitive  : 
feall-an,  to  fall ;  ceos-an,  to  choose;  bid-an,  to  abide. 

57.  The  personal  endings  are  : 

Sing.  1.     -e 

2.  -est 

3.  -e8 

1  See  §  21,  (1). 

2  Pronouns  agree  in  gender  with  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand. 
Hit,  however,  sometimes  stands  for  inanimate  things  of  both  mascu- 
line and  feminine  genders.    See  Wiilfing  (I.e.)  I,  §  238. 

8  See  §  76  (last  sentence). 


40  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

/-Umlaut. 

58.  The  2d  and  3d  singular  endings  were  originally 
not  -est  and  -e3,  but  -is  and  -iS  ;  and  the  i  of  these  older 
endings  has  left  its  traces  upon  almost  every  page  of 
Early  West   Saxon  literature.      This  i,  though  unac- 
cented and   soon   displaced,  exerted  a  powerful  back 
influence   upon  the  vowel   of   the   preceding  accented 
syllable.     This  influence,  a  form  of  regressive  assimi- 
lation, is  known  as   i-umlaut  (pronounced   o6m-lowf). 
The  vowel  i  or  j  ( =  ?/),  being  itself  a  palatal,  suc- 
ceeded in  palatalizing  every  guttural  vowel  that  pre- 
ceded it,  and  in  imposing  still  more  of  the  i-quality 
upon   diphthongs    that    were    already    palatal.1      The 
changes  produced  were  these : 

a  became  f  (ee):  m^nn  «*mann-iz),  men. 

a  "  se  eenig  «*an-ig),  any. 

u  "  y  wyllen  (<*vnill-in),  woollen. 

u  "  y  my s  (<*mus-iz),  mice. 

o  "  §  d$hter  (<*dohtr-i),  to  or  for  the  daughter. 

6  "  e  fet  «*fot-iz),  feet. 

ea  "  ie  wiexS(<*weax-iS),  he  grows  (weaxan=£o  </row). 

Sa  "  ie  hiewS  (<*h§aw-i3),  he  hews  (heawan=£o  hew~). 

eo  "  ie  wiercan  (<*-\veorc-jan),  to  work. 

So  "  Ie  liehtan  (<*leoht-jan),  to  light. 

The  Unchanged  Present  Indicative. 

59.  In  the  Northumbrian  and  Mercian  dialects,  as 
well  as  in  the  dialect  of  Late  West  Saxon,  the  2d  and 
3d  singular  endings  were  usually  joined  to  the  present 

1  The  palatal  vowels  and  diphthongs  were  long  or  short  ae,  e,  i, 
(ie),  y,  ea,  eo;  the  guttural  vowels  were  long  or  short  a,  o,  u. 


Present  Indicative  Endings  of  Strong  Verbs.       41 

stem  without  modification  either  of  the  stem  itself  or 
of  the  personal  endings.  The  complete  absence  of 
umlauted  forms  in  the  present  indicative  of  Mn.E.  is 
thus  accounted  for. 

In  Early  West  Saxon,  however,  such  forms  as  the 
following  are  comparatively  rare  in  the  2d  and  3d 
singular  : 

1.  Ic  feall-e  (I fall)          ce"os-e  (I  choose)          bld-e  (I abide) 

2.  flu  feall-est  ceos-est  bld-est 

3.  he  feall-eS  ceos-efl  bld-e« 


Plur.  1.     we 

2.  ge 

3.  hie  J 


feall-aS  ceos-aft  bid-afl 


The  Present  Indicative  with  /-Umlaut  and  Contraction. 

60.  The    2d   and   3d   persons   singular    are    distin- 
guished from  the  other  forms  of  the  present  indicative 
in  Early  West  Saxon  by  (1)  i-urulaut  of  the  vowel  of 
the  stem,  (2)  syncope  of  the  vowel  of  the  ending,  giv- 
ing -st  and  -8  for  -est  and  -eS,  and  (3)  contraction  of 
-at  and  -8  with  the  final  consonant  or  consonants  of  the 
stem. 

Contraction. 

61.  The    changes  produced  by  i-umlaut  have  been 
already  discussed.      By  these    changes,  therefore,  the 
stems  of  the  2d  and  3d  singular  indicative    of   such 
verbs  as  (1)  st9ndan   (—  standan),  to  stand,   (2)  cumaii, 
to    come,    (3)    growan,    to   grow,    (4)    brucan,    to    enjoy, 
(5)  blawan,  to   blozv,  (6)  feallan,  to  fall,  (7)  heawan,  to 
new,  (8)  weorpan,  to  throw,  and  (9)   ceosan,   to   choose, 


42  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

become  respectively  (1)  stend-,1  (2)  cym-,  (3)  grew-, 
(4)  bryc-,  (5)  bleew-,  (6)  fiell-,  (7)  blew-,  (8)  wierp-, 
and  (9)  cies-. 

If  the  unchanged  stem  contains  the  vowel  e,  this  is 
changed  in  the  2d  and  3d  singular  to  i  (ie)  :  cweSan  to 
say,  stem  cwiS- ;  beran  to  bear,  stem  bier-.  But  this 
mutation2  had  taken  place  long  before  the  period  of 
O.E.,  and  belongs  to  the  Germanic  languages  in  gen- 
eral. It  is  best,  however,  to  class  the  change  of  e  to 
i  or  ie  with  the  changes  due  to  umlaut,  since  it  occurs 
consistently  in  the  2d  and  3d  singular  stems  of  Early 
West  Saxon,  and  outlasted  almost  all  of  the  umlaut 
forms  proper. 

If,  now,  the  syncopated  endings  -st  and  -3  are  added 
directly  to  the  umlauted  stem,  there  will  frequently 
result  such  a  massing  of  consonants  as  almost  to  defy 
pronunciation :  cwi8-st,  thou  sayest ;  stend-st,  thou 
standest,  etc.  Some  sort  of  contraction,  therefore,  is 
demanded  for  the  sake  of  euphony.  The  ear  and  eye 
will,  by  a  little  practice,  become  a  sure  guide  in  these 
contractions.  The  following  rules,  however,  must  be 
observed.  They  apply  only  to  the  2d  and  3d  singular 
of  the  present  indicative  : 


1  The  more  common  form  for  stems  with  a  is  ae  rather  than  § : 
faraii,  to  go,  2d  and  3d  singular  stem  tser- ;  sacan,  to  contend,  stem 
seec-.      Indeed,  a  changes  to  e.  via  ae   (Cosijn,   Altwestsachsische 
Grammatik,  I,  §  32). 

2  Umlaut  is  frequently  called  Mutation.    Metaphony  is  still  another 
name  for  the  same  phenomenon.   The  term  Metaphony  has  the  advan- 
tage of  easy  adjectival  formation  (metaphonic).     It  was  proposed  by 
Professor  Victor  Henry  (Comparative  Grammar  of  English  and  Ger- 
man, Paris,  1894),  but  has  not  been  naturalized. 


Present  Indicative  Endings  of  Strong  Verbs.       43 

(1)  If  the  stem  ends  in  a  double  consonant,  one  of 
the  consonants  is  dropped  : 

1.  feall-e  (I fall)         1.    winn-e  (I fight)         1.    swimm-e  (/  svrim) 

2.  fiel-st  2.   win-st  2.   swim-st 

3.  fiel-«  3.   win-«  3.    swim-« 

(2)  If  the  stem  ends  in  -8,  this  is  dropped : 

1.  cweft-e  (/  say)  1.   weor5-e  (I  become)    • 

2.  cwi-st  2.   wier-st 
.3.   cwi-$  3.    wier-« 

(3)  If  the  stem  ends  in  -d,  this  is  changed  to  -t. 
The  -8  of  the  ending  is  then  also  changed  to  -t,  and 
usually  absorbed.     Thus  the  stem  of  the  2d  singular 
serves  as  stem  and  ending  for  the  3d  singular: 

1.  stxjnd-e  (  =  stand-e)  (Z  stand)  1.    bind-e  (I  bind) 

2.  st^nt-st  2.   bint-st 

3.  ste,nt  3.   bint 

1.  b!d-e  (I  abide)  1.   rid-e  (I  ride) 

2.  blt-st  2.   rlt-st 

3.  bit(-t)  3.   rit(-t) 

(4)  If  the  stem  ends  already  in  -t,  the  endings  are 
added  as  in  (3),   -8  being  again  changed   to    -t   and 
absorbed  : 

1.  breot-e  (I  break)  1.   feoht-e  (I fight)  1.   blt-e  (I  bite) 

2.  briet-st  2.    fieht-st  2.    bit-st 

3.  briet  (-t)  3.   fieht  3.    bit  (-t) 

(5)  If  the  stem  ends  in  -s,  this  is  dropped  before 
-st  (to  avoid  -sst),  but  is  retained  before  -8,  the  latter 
being  changed  to  -t.     Thus  the  2d  and  3d  singulars 
are  identical : 1 

1  This  happens  also  when  the  infinitive  stem  ends  in  st : 

1.  berst-e  (I  burst) 

2.  bier-st 

3.  bierst. 


44  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

1.  ceos-e  (7  choose)  1.    ns-e  (I  rise) 

2.  cle-st  2.   r!-st 

3.  cies-t  3.   ris-t 

62.  EXERCISES. 

I.  1.  Se  cyning  fielft.  2.  Da  wif  ceosaft  <5a  giefa.  3.  Du 
ste_ntst  on  <5gem  huse.  4.  He  wierpo"  Sset  weepen.  5.  Se  s^cg 
hiewS  $a  lie.  6.  Dset  seed  grewS  Qnd  wiexft  (Mark  iv.  27). 
7.  Ic  st^nde  her,  $nd  5u  st^ntst  Seer.  8.  "  Ic  hit  eom,"  cwitJ 
he.  9.  Hie  beraS  (5aes  wulfes  ban.  10.  He  hie  bint,  ond  ic 
hine  binde.  11.  Ne  ritst 


II.  1.  We  shall  bind  him.  2.  Who  chooses  the  child's 
gifts?  3.  "He  was  not  here,"  says  she.  4.  Wilt  thou 
remain  in  the  hall  ?  5.  The  wolves  are  biting  (=  bite)  the 
fishermen.  6.  He  enjoys1  the  love  of  his  children.  7.  Do 
you  enjoy  (=  Enjoy  est  thou)  the  consolation  and  friendship 
of  the  scribe  ?  8.  Will  he  come  ?  9.  I  shall  throw  the 
spear,  and  thou  wilt  bear  the  weapons.  10.  The  king's 
son  will  become  king.  11.  The  army  (werod)  is  breaking 
the  doors  and  walls  of  the  house. 


CHAPTER   XI. 

THE  CONSONANT  DECLENSIONS  OF  NOUNS. 
The  Weak  or  /7-Declension. 

63.    The  n-Decleiision  contains  almost  all  of  the  O.E. 

nouns  belonging  to  the  Consonant  Declensions.     The 
stem  characteristic  n  has  been  preserved  in  the  oblique 

1  Brucan,  to  enjoy,  usually  takes  the  genitive  case,  not  the  accusa- 
tive.    It  means  "  to  have  joy  of  any  thing." 


The  Consonant  Declensions  of  Nouns. 


cases,  so  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing 
n-steras  from  the  preceding  vowel  stems. 

The  n-Declension  includes  (a)  masculines,  (£)  femi- 
nines,  and  (c)  neuters.  The  masculines  far  outnumber 
the  feminines,  and  the  neuters  contain  only  Sage,  eye 
and  §are,  ear.  The  masculines  end  in  -a,  the  feminines 
and  neuters  in  -e. 

64.  Paradigms  of  (a)  se  hunta,  hunter ;  (6)  sgo  tunge, 
tongue  ;  (c)  Sect  eage,  eye : 


Sing.  N.    hunt-a 
G.D.I,     hunt-an 
hunt-an 
hunt-an 
hunt-ena 


A. 

Plur.  N.A. 

G. 

D.I. 


hunt-um 


tung-e 

eag-e 

tung-an 

eag-an 

tung-an 

eag-e 

tung-an 

eag-an 

tung-ena 

eag-ena 

tung-um 

6ag-oim 

65. 


VOCABULARY. 


se  adesa.  hatchet,  adze, 
ae  aemetta,  leisure  [empt-inessj. 
se  bpna  (bana),  murderer  [bane]. 
seo  cirice,  church  [Scotch  kirk], 
se    cnapa    (later,    ciiafa).     boy 

[knave]. 

se  cuma,  stranger  [comer]. 
Saet  eare,  ear. 
seo  eorSe,  earth. 
se  gefera,  companion  [co-farer]. 
se  guma.  man  [bride- groom1]. 
seo  heorte,  heart. 


se  niona.  moon. 

seo  needre,  adder  [a  nadder  >  an 

adder2]. 
se  oxa,  ox. 
se  sceowyrhta,  shoe-maker  [shoe- 

wright] . 

seo  sunne,  sun. 
se  teona,  injury  [teen]. 
biddan  (with  dat.  of  person  and 

gen.  of  thing3),  to  request,  ask 

for. 
cwelan,  to  die  [quail]. 


1  The  r  is  intrusive  in  -groom,  as  it  is  in  cart-r-idge,  part-r-idge, 
vag-r-ant,  and  hoa-r-se. 

2  The  n  has  been  appropriated  by  the  article.     Cf.  an  apron  (<  a 
napron),   an  auger  «a  nauger~),   an  orange   (<  a   norange),  an 
umpire  (<  a  numpire). 

3  In  Mn.E.  we  say  "  I  request  a  favor  of  you"  ;  but  in  O.E.  it  was 


46  Etymology  and  Syntax, 


gescieppan,  to  create  [shape, 
land-scape,  friend-ship]. 

giefan  (with  dat.  of  indirect  ob- 
ject)', to  give. 

healdan,  to  hold. 

helpan  (with  dat.) ,  to  help. 


sceSSan1  (with   dat.),    to    injure 

[scathe]. 
wi3st9ndan     (-standan)     (with 

dat.),  to  withstand. 
writan,  to  write. 


66.  EXERCISES. 

I.  1.  Se  sceowyrhta  bryco"  his  eemettan.       2.  Da  guman 
bidda<5  Seem  cnapan  Saes  adesan.        3.  Hwa  is  se  cuma? 
4.  Hielpst  3u  Seem  b^nan  ?       5.  Ic  him  ne  helpe.        6.  Da 
beam  sc^frSaS  Saes  bqnan  eagum  ond  earum.        7.  Se  cuma 
cvvielS  on  Seere  cirican.       8.  Se  hunta  wiSst^nt  Ssern  wulfum. 
9.  Da  oxan  bera6  Sses  cnapan  geferan.       10.  Se  mona  ond  (5a 
tunglu  sind  on  Ssem  heofonum.        11.  Da  huntan  healdaS 
Sgere  nsedran  tungan.       12.  He  hiere  giefS  5a  giefa.       13.  Da 
werod  sc^65a5  6ses  cyninges  feldum. 

II.  1.  Who  will  bind  the  mouths  of  the  oxen?       2.  Who 
gives  him  the  gifts?       3.  Thou  art  helping  him,  and  I  am 
injuring  him.       4.  The  boy's  companion  is  dying.       5.  His 
nephew  does  not  enjoy  his  leisure.       6.  The  adder's  tongue 
injures  the  king's  companion.       7.  The  sun  is  the  day's  eye. 
8.  She  asks  the  strangers  for  the  spears.       9.  The  men's 
bodies  are  not  here.         10.  Is  he  not  (Nis  h§)  the  child's 
murderer?        11.  Who    creates    the    bodies  and,  the  souls 
of  men?       12.  Thou  withstandest  her.        13.  He   is   not 
writing. 

"I  request  you  (dative)  of  a  favor  "  (genitive).  Cf.  Cymbeline,  III, 
6,  92:  "We'll  mannerly  demand  thee  of  thy  story."  See  Franz's 
Shakespeare-Grammatik,  §  361  (1900). 

1  So? 33an  is  conjugated  through  the  present  indicative  like  fr^m- 
man.     See  §  129. 


Remnants  of  Other  Consonant  Declensions.        47 

CHAPTER   XII. 
Remnants  of  Other  Consonant  Declensions. 

67.  The  nouns  belonging  here  are  chiefly  masculines 
and  feminines.     Their  stem  ended  in  a  consonant  other 
than  n.     The  most  important  of  them  may  be  divided 
as  follows:   (1)  The  foot  Declension,  (2)  r-Stems,  and 
(3)  nd-Stems.     These  declensions  are  all  characterized 
by  the  prevalence,  wherever   possible,  of   i-umlaut  in 
certain  cases,  the  case  ending  being  then  dropped. 

68.  (1)  The  nouns  belonging  to  the  foot  Declension 
exhibit  umlaut  most  consistently  in  the  X.A.  plural. 
Sing.  N.A.    se  fot  (foot)     s6  mo.n  (man)     se  t5$  (tooth)     s6o  cu  (cow) 
Plur.N.A.        fet  men  t6$  cy 

NOTE. — The  dative  singular  usually  has  the  same  form  as  the 
N.A.  plural.  Here  belong  also  s§o  b5c  (book),  seo  burg  (borough), 
seo  gos  (goose),  seo  lus  (loiise),  and  seo  mus  (mouse),  all  with 
umlauted  plurals.  Mn.E.  preserves  only  six  of  the  foot  Declension 
plurals :  feet,  men,  teeth,  geese,  lice,  and  mice.  The  c  in  the  last  two 
is  an  artificial  spelling,  intended  to  preserve  the  sound  of  voiceless  s. 
Mn.E.  kine  (=  cy-en)  is  a  double  plural  formed  after  the  analogy  of 
weak  stems  ;  Burns  in  The  Two,  Dogs  uses  kye. 

No  umlaut  is  possible  in  seo  niht  (night)  and  se  monaS  (month), 
plural  niht  and  monad*  (preserved  in  Mn.E.  twelvemonth  and  fort- 
night). 

(2)  The  r-Stems  contain  nouns  expressing  kinship, 
and  exhibit  umlaut  of  the  dative  singular. 
Sing.  N.A.    s6  feeder    se  broSor    seo  modor    seo  dohtor    seo  swuster 

(father)         (In-other}          (mother)         (daughter)  (xixter) 

D.        feeder        brefter  meder          de.hter  swyster 

NOTE. — The  N.A.  plural  is  usually  the  same  as  the  N.A.  singular. 

These  umlaut  datives  are  all  due  to  the  presence  of  a  former  i.    Cf .  Lat. 

dative  singular patri,frdtri,mdtri,sorori(<.*sosori), and  Greek  Ovyarpt. 


48  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

(3)  The  nd-Stems  show  umlaut  both  in  the  N.A. 
plural  and  in  the  dative  singular: 

Sing.  N.A.     se  freond  {friend)        se  feond  (enemy) 

D.         Mend  fiend 

Plur.  N.A.         friend  fiend 

NOTE. — Mn.E.  friend  and  fiend  are  interesting  analogical  spell- 
ings. When  s  had  been  added  by  analogy  to  the  O.E.  plurals  friend 
and  fiend,  thus  giving  the  double  plurals  friends  and  fiends,  a  second 
singular  was  formed  by  dropping  the  B.  Thus  friend  and  fiend  displaced 
the  old  singulars  frend  and  fend,  both  of  which  occur  in  the  M.E. 
Ormulum,  written  about  the  year  1200. 

Summary  of  O.E.  Declensions. 

69.  A  brief,  working  summary  of  the  O.E.  system 
of  declensions  may  now  be  made  on  the  basis  of  gender. 

All  O.E.  nouns  are  (1)  masculine,  (2)  feminine,  or 
(3)  neuter. 

(1)  The   masculines  follow  the   declension   of  muS 
(§  26),  except  those  ending  in  -a,  which  are  declined 
like  hunta  (§  64)  : 

Sing.  N.A.  nuTS  N.    hunta 

G.  muSes  G.D.A.    huntan 

D.I.  nm$e  /.    huntan 

Plur.  N.A.  niuftas  huntan 

G.  mufta  huntena 

D.  I.  mu'Sum  huntum 

(2)  The  short-stemmed  neuters  follow  the  declension 
of  hof  (§  32) ;  the  long-stemmed,  that  of  beam  (§  32) : 

Sing.  N.A.  hof  beam 

G.  hofes  bearnes 

D.I.  hofe  bearne 

Plur.  N.A.  hofu  beam 

G.  hofa  bearna 

D.L  hofum  bearnum 


Remnants  of  Other  Consonant  Declensions.        49 


(3)  The  feminines  follow  the  declensions  of  giefu 
and  wund  (§  38)  (the  only  difference  being  in  the  N. 
singular),  except  those  ending  in  -e,  which  follow  the 
declension  of  tunge  (§  64) : 


Sing.  N. 

giefu 

wund 

tunge 

G. 

giefe 

wunde 

tungan 

D.I. 

giefe 

wunde 

tungan 

A. 

giefe 

wunde 

tungan 

Plur.  N.A. 

giefa 

wunda  • 

tungan 

G. 

giefa 

wunda 

tungena 

D.I. 

giefum 

wundum 

tungum 

70. 


VOCABULARY. 


ac,  but. 

biitan  (with  dat.),  except,  but, 
without. 

ae  Crist,  Christ. 

ae  eorl,  earl,  alderman,  warrior. 

Seet  ^inglalQnd,  England  [An- 
gles' land], 

faran,  to  go  [fare]. 


findan.  to  find. 

se  God,  God. 

hatan,  to  call,  name. 

se  hlaford.  lord  [hlaf-weard] . 

mid  (with  dat.),  with. 

on  (with  ace.),  on,  against,  into. 

to  (with  dat.),  to. 

uton  (with  infin.),  let  us. 


NOTE.  —  O.E.  mgn  (man)  is  frequently  used  in  an  indefinite  sense 
for  one,  people,  they.  It  thus  takes  the  place  of  a  passive  construction 
proper :  And  man  nam  ba  gebrotu  be  bar  belifon,  twf If  cypan 
fulle,  And  there  were  taken  up  of  fragments  that  remained  there  twelve 
baskets  full;  but  more  literally,  And  one  (or  they)  took  the  fragments, 
etc.  ;  Ond  Hasstenes  wlf  ond  his  suna  twegen  mpn  brohte  to 
3aem  cyninge,  And  Hcesten's  wife  and  his  two  sons  were  brought  to 
the  king. 


71. 


EXERCISES. 


I.  1.  MQU  hine  hset  J^lfred.  2.  Uton  faran  on  o"aet  scip. 
3.  God  is  cyninga  cyning  ^nd  hlaforda  hlaford.  4.  Se  eorl 
ne  gief(5  giefa  his  fiend.  5.  Ic  nses  mid  his  friend.  6.  Seo 
modor  fsert5  mid  hiere  de_hter  on  Sa  burg.  7.  Fintst  ?5u  Saes 


50  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

boceres  bee?  8.  He  bint  ealle  (all)  <5a  deor  butan  Seem 
wulfum.  9.  Du  eart  Crist,  Godes  sunu.  10.  "  Uton  bindan 
Saes  b^nan  fet,"  cwiS  he. 

II.  1.  Christ  is  the  son  of  God.  2.  Let  us  call  him  Caed- 
mon.  3.  He  throws  his  spear  against  the  door.  4.  Thou 
art  not  the  earl's  brother.  5.  He  will  go  with  his  father  to 
England,  but  I  shall  remain  (abide)  here.  6.  Gifts  are  not 
given  to  murderers.  7.  Who  will  find  the  tracks  of  the 
animals?  8.  They  ask  their  lord  for  his  weapons  (§  65, 
Note  3). 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

PRONOUNS. 
(1)  Personal  Pronouns. 

72.    Paradigms  of  ic,  /;  Su,  thou.     For  hs,  hgo,  hit, 
see  5  53. 


Sing.  N. 

ic 

«u 

G. 

min 

•Sin 

D. 

me 

«e 

A. 

me  (mec) 

«6  (Sec) 

Dual  N. 

wit  (ice  two) 

git  (ye  two) 

G. 

uncer  (of  us  two) 

incer  (of  you  two) 

D. 

unc  (to  or  for  us  two) 

inc  (to  or  for  you  two) 

A. 

unc  (us  two) 

inc  (you  two) 

Plur.  N. 

we 

gs 

G. 

user  (ure) 

eower 

D. 

us 

eow 

A. 

us  (usic) 

eow  (eowic) 

NOTE  1.  — The  dual  number  was  soon  absorbed  by  the  plural.  No 
relic  of  it  now  remains.  But  when  two  and  only  two  are  referred  to, 
the  dual  is  consistently  used  in  O.E.  An  example  occurs  in  the  case 


Pronouns.  51 

of  the  two  blind  men  (Mattheic  ix.  27^31)  :  Gemiltsa  Tine,  Davldes 
sunu  !  Pity  MS,  (thou)  Son  of  David!  Sie  inc  setter  incrum  gelea- 
fan.  Be  it  unto  you  according  to  your  faith. 

NOTE  2. —  Mn.E.  ye  (<ge),  the  nominative  proper,  is  fast  being 
displaced  by  you  «  §ow),  the  old  objective.  The  distinction  is  pre- 
served in  the  King  James's  version  of  the  Bible :  Ye  in  me,  and  I  in 
you  (John  xiv.  20) ;  but  not  in  Shakespeare  and  later  writers. 

(2)  Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

73.  Paradigm  of  8§s.  Seos,  Sis,  this.    For  the  Definite 
Article  as  a  demonstrative,  meaning  that,  see  §  28,  Note  3. 

Masculine.  Feminine.              Neuter. 

Sing.  N.     Ses  Sees                     Sis 

G.     ftisses  Sisse                    flisses 

D.     Sissuin  Sisse                    Sissum 

A.     •Sisne  iSas                      Sis 

/.     «ys  •Sys 

All  Genders. 

Plur.  N.A.  Sas 

G.  -Sissa 

D.  tSissum 

(3)  The  Interrogative  Pronoun. 

74.  Paradigm  of  hwa,  hweet,  who,  what? 

Masculine.  Neuter. 

Sing.  N.     hwa  hwaet 

G.     hwses  hwses 

D.     hwsem  hwaem 

A.     hwone  hwaet 

/.  hwy 

NOTE  1.  —  The  derivative  interrogatives.  hwaeSer  «*h'wa-3er), 
which  of  two?  and  hwilc  (<*hw5-lic),  which?  are  declined  as  strong 
adjectives  (§§  79-82). 

NOTE  2.  — The  instrumental  case  of  hwa  survives  in  Mn.E.  why  = 
on  what  account ;  the  instrumental  of  the  definite  article  is  seen  in  the 


52  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

adverbial  the :    The  sooner,  the  better  =  by  how  much  sooner,  by  so 
much  better. 

NOTE  3.  —  How  were  the  Mn.E.  relative  pronouns,  icho  and  which, 
evolved  from  the  O.  E.  interrogatives  ?  The  change  began  in  early 
West  Saxon  with  hwaet  used  in  indirect  questions  (Wiilfing,  I.e. 
§  310,  /3) :  Nu  ic  wat  eall  hwaet  Su  woldest,  Now  I  know  all  that 
thou  desiredst.  The  direct  question  was,  Hwaet  woldest  3u  ?  But 
the  presence  of  eall  shows  that  in  Alfred's  mind  hwaet  was,  in  the 
indirect  form,  more  relative  than  interrogative. 

(4)  Relative  Pronouns. 

75.  O.E.  had  no  relative  pronoun  proper.     It  used 
instead  (1)  the    Indeclinable    Particle   Se,  who,  whom, 
which,  that,  (2)  the  Definite  Article  (§  28),  (3)  the  Defi- 
nite Article  with  the  Indeclinable  Particle,  (4)  the  In- 
declinable Particle  with  a  Personal  Pronoun. 

The  Definite  Article  agrees  in  gender  and  number 
with  the  antecedent.  The  case  depends  upon  the  con- 
struction. The  bird  which  I  have  may,  therefore,  be  :  — 

(1)  Se  fugol  3e  ic  haebbe; 

(2)  Se  fugol  8one  ic  haebbe  . 

(3)  Se  fugol  3one  Se  ( =  the  which)  ic  haebbe ; 

(4)  Se  fugol  3e  hine  ic  haebbe. 

NOTE.  — O.E.  Se  agrees  closely  in  construction  with  Mn.E.  relative 
that:  (1)  Both  are  indeclinable.  (2)  Both  refer  to  animate  or  inani- 
mate objects.  (3)  Both  may  be  used  with  phrasal  value :  3y  ylcan 
daege  Se  hi  hine  to  Saem  ade  beran  wyllaS,  On  the  same  day  that 
(=  on  which)  they  intend  to  bear  him  to  the  funeral  pile.  (4)  Neither 
can  be  preceded  by  a  preposition. 

(5)  Possessive  Pronouns. 

76.  The    Possessive    Pronouns    are   mm,  mine;   Sin, 
thine;  ure,  our;  eower.  your;  [sin,  his,  her,  its};  uncer, 
belonging  to  us  two;  incer,  belonging  to  you  two.     They 


Adjectives,  Strong  and  Weak.  53 

are  declined  as  strong  adjectives.  The  genitives  of  the 
Third  Personal  Pronoun,  his,  his,  hiere,  her,  hiera,  their, 
are  indeclinable. 

(6)  Indefinite  Pronouns. 

77.  These  are  §§lc,  each,  evert/;  an,  a,  an,  one;  eenig 
(<an-ig),  any;  nasnig  (<ne-8enig),  none;  63er,  other; 
sum,  one,  a  certain  one;  swilc,  such.  They  are  declined 
as  strong  adjectives. 

XOTE.  — O.E.  had  three  established  methods  of  converting  an  inter- 
rogative pronoun  into  an  indefinite :  (1)  By  prefixing  ge,  (2)  by  pre- 
fixing aeg,  (3)  by  interposing  the  interrogative  between  swa  .  .  . 
swa:  (1)  gehwa,  each;  gehweeSer,  either;  gehwilc,  each;  (2) 
eeghwa.  each  ;  eeghwaeSer,  each ;  seghwilc,  each ;  (3)  swa  hwa 
swa,  whosoever;  swa  hwaeSer  swa,  whichsoever  of  two  ;  swa  hwilc 
swa,  ichosoever. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 
ADJECTIVES,  STRONG  AND  WEAK. 

78.  The  declension  of  adjectives  conforms  in  general 
to  the  declension  of  nouns,  though  a  few  pronominal 
inflections  have  influenced  certain  cases.  Adjectives 
belong  either  to  (1)  the  Strong  Declension  or  to  (2) 
the  Weak  Declension.  The  Weak  Declension  is  em- 
ployed when  the  adjective  is  preceded  by  se  or  3§s, 
the,  that,  or  this;  otherwise,  the  Strong  Declension  is 
employed  :  Sa  godan  cyningas,  the  good  kings ;  Ses  goda 
cyning,  this  good  king  ;  but  gode  cyningas,  good  kings. 

XOTE. — The  Weak  Declension  is  also  frequently  used  when  the 
adjective  is  employed  in  direct  address,  or  preceded  by  a  possessive 


54  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

pronoun :  Dryhten,  aelmihtiga  God  .  .  .  ic  bidde  Se  for  Sinre 
miclan  mildheortnesse,  Lord,  almighty  God,  I  pray  thee,  for  thy 
great  mercy. 

(1)  Strong  Declension  of  Adjectives, 
(a)  Monosyllables. 

79.  The  strong  adjectives  are  chiefly  monosyllabic 
with    long  stems:    god,  good;    eald,   old;    l9ng,    long ; 
swift,  swift.     They  are  declined  as  follows: 

80.  Paradigm  of  god,  good: 

Masculine.  Feminine.  Neuter. 

Sing.  N.  g6d  god  g5d 

G.  godes  g5dre  godes 

D.  godum  g5dre  godum 

A.  godne  gode  god 

/.  g5de  gode 

Plur.  N.A.  gode  g5da  god 

G.  godra  godra  godra 

D.I.  godum  godum  godum 

81.  If  the  stem  is  short,  -u  is  retained  as  in  giefu 
(§  39,  (1))  and  hofu  (§  33,  (1)).      Thus  glaed  (§  27, 
Note  1),  glad,  and  til,  useful,  are  inflected  : 

Masculine.  Feminine.  Neuter. 

I  glaed  gladu  glaed 

'  1  til  tilu  til 


Plur.  N.A 

I  tile  tila  tilu 

(6)  Polysyllables. 

82.  Polysyllables  follow  the  declension  of  short 
monosyllables.  The  most  common  terminations  are 
-en,  ~en;  -feest,  -fast;  -full,  -ful;  -leas,  -less ;  -He,  -ly ; 
-ig,  -y :  hae3-en  (ha§3  =  heath),  heathen;  stfde-faest  (st^de 


Adjectives,  Strong  and  Weak.  55 


=  place),  steadfast  ;  sorg-full  (sorg  =  »0rr0e0),  sorrowful; 
cyst-leas  (cyst  =  worth),  worthless;  eorS-Hc  (eorSe  = 
earth),  earthly  ;  blod-ig  (blod  =  blood),  bloody.  The 
present  and  past  participles,  when  inflected  and  not 
as  weak  adjectives,  may  be  classed  with  the  polysyl- 
labic adjectives,  their  inflection  being  the  same. 

Syncopation  occurs  as  in  a-stems  (§  27,  (4)).  Thus 
halig,  holy,  bliSe,  blithe,  berende,  bearing,  geboren,  born, 
are  thus  inflected: 


Sing.  N. 


Plur.  N.A. 


(2)  Weak  Declension  of  Adjectives. 

83.  The  Weak  Declension  of  adjectives,  whether  mono- 
syllabic or  polysyllabic,  does  not  differ  from  the  Weak 
Declension  of  nouns,  except  that  -ena  of  the  genitive 
plural  is  usually  replaced  by  -ra  of  the  strong  adjectives. 


84.      Sing.  N. 

G. 

D.I. 

A. 

Plur.  X.A. 

G. 

D.I. 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

halig 

halgu 

halig 

bliSe 

blrSu 

bliSe 

berende 

berendu 

berende 

geboren 

geborenu 

geboren 

halge 

halga 

halgu 

bliSe 

blrSa 

bllSu 

berende 

berenda 

berendu 

geborene 

geborena 

geborenu 

asculine. 

Feminine.      Neuter. 

goda 

gode         gode 

godan 

godan        godan 

godan 

godan        godan 

g6dan 

g6dan        gode 

All  Genders. 

godan 

godra  (godena) 

godum 

56 


Etymology  and  Syntax. 


85.  RULE  OF  SYNTAX. 

Adjectives  agree  with  their  nouns  in  gender,  number, 
and  case ;  but  participles,  when  used  predicatively,  may 
remain  uninflected  (§  139,  §  140). 


86. 


VOCABULARY. 


dead,  dead. 

call,  all. 

hal,1  whole,  hale. 

heard,  hard. 

Saet  hors,  horse. 

leof,  dear  [as  lief]. 

lytel,  little. 

micel.  great,  large. 

mqnig,  many. 

nimaii,  to  take  [nimble,  numb]. 

nlwe,  new. 

rice,  rich,  powerful. 


so3,  true  [sooth-sayer]. 

staelwierSe,2  serviceable  [stal- 
wart] . 

swiSe,  very. 

se  tun,  town,  village. 

s§  8egn.  servant,  thane,  warrior. 

Seet  Sing,  thing. 

se  weg,  way. 

wis,  wise. 

wi3  (with  ace.),  against,  in  a 
hostile  sense  [with-stand], 

se  ilca,  the  same  [of  that  ilk]. 


87. 


EXERCISES. 


I.  1.  Das  scipu  ne  sind  swiSe  swift,  ac  'hie  .sind  swi<5e 
stselwierSu.  2.  Seo  gode  cwen  giefft  selcum  Segne  m^niga 
giefa.  3.  Des  wlsa  cyning  haefo"  monige  micele  tunas  on 
his  rice.  4.  Nsenig  inqn  is  wis  on  eallum  Singum.  o.  Dy 
ilcan  dsege  (§  98,  (2))  m^n  f^nd  (found)  Sone  Segn  6e  mines 
wines  bee  haefde.  6.  Ealle  8a  s^cgas  M  5e  swift  hors 
habbaft  rida^  wit5  t5one  bgnan.  7.  Dine  fiend  sind  mine 

1  Halig,  holy,  contains,  of  course,  the  same  root.     "I  find,"  says 
Carlyle,  "  that  you  could  not  get  any  better  definition  of  what  'holy  ' 
really  is  than  'healthy  —  completely  healthy.'  " 

2  This  word  has  been  much  discussed.     The  older  etymologists 
explained  it  as  meaning  worth  stealing.    A  more  improbable  conject- 
ure is  that  it  means  worth  a  stall  or  place.    It  is  used  of  ships  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.     As  applied  to  men,  Skeat  thinks  it  meant 
good  or  vsorthy  at  stealing  •  but  the  etymology  is  still  unsettled. 


Numerals.  57 

friend.  8.  Se  micela  stan  <5one  3e  ic  on  mmum  hondum 
lisebbe  is  swifte  heard.  9.  Hie  sc^<55a8  6;£m  ealdum  horsum. 
10.  Uton  niman  <5as  tilan  giefa  $nd  hie  beran  to  urum  leofum 
bearnum. 

II.  1.  These  holy  men  are  wise  and  good.  2.  Are  the 
little  children  very  dear  to  the  servants  (dat.  without  to)? 
3.  Gifts  are  not  given  (§  70,  Note  1)  to  rich  men.  4.  All 
the  horses  that  are  in  the  king's  fields  are  swift.  o.  These 
stones  are  very  large  and  hard.  6.  He  takes  the  dead 
man's  spear  and  fights  against  the  large  army.  7.  This 
new  house  has  many  doors.  8.  My  ways  are  not  your 
ways.  9.  Whosoever  chooses  me,  him  I  also  (Sac)  choose. 
10.  Every  man  has  many  friends  that  are  not  wise. 


CHAPTER   XV. 

NUMERALS. 

88.  Numerals   are   either   (a)   Cardinal,    expressing 
pure  number,  one,  two,  three  ;  or  (6)  Ordinal,  express- 
ing rank  or  succession,  first,  second,  third. 

(a)  Cardinals. 

89.  The  Cardinals  fall  into  the  three  following  syn- 
tactic groups : 

GROUP  I. 

1.  an 

2.  twegen  [twain] 

3.  •Srle 

These  numerals  are  inflected  adjectives.  An,  one,  an, 
a,  being  a  long  stemmed  monosyllable,  is  declined  like 
god  (§  80).  The  weak  form,  ana,  means  alone. 


58 


Etymology  and  Syntax. 


Twegen  and  3rie,  which  have  no  singular,  are  thus 
declined : 


Plur.  N.A. 
G. 

D. 


90. 


Masc.       Fern. 

Neut. 

Masc.         Fein. 

Neut. 

twegen     twa 

twa  (tu) 

iSrle            Sreo 

"Sreo 

twegra     twegra 

twegra 

Sreora        fireora 

•Sreora 

{  twaim      twsem 
(  (twam)    (twam) 

twajm 
(twam) 

'Srim           'Srim 

•Srirn 

GROUP  II. 

4.    feower 

12.    tw^lf 

5.     fif 

13.    'Sreotlene 

6.     siex 

14.    feowertiene 

7.     seofon 

15.    flftiene 

8.     eahta 

16.    siextlene 

9.     nigon 

17.    seofontlene 

10.    tlen 

18.    eahtatlene 

11.     e^ndlefan 

19.    nigontiene 

These  words  are  used  chiefly  as  uninflected  adjectives: 
on  gewitscipe  Sreora  obpe  feower  bisceopa,  on  testimony 
of  three  or  four  bishops;  on  siex  dagum,  in  six  days;  an 
needre  3e  hasfde  nigon  heafdu.  a  serpent  which  had  nine 
heads;  seSeling  eahtatlene  wintra,  a  prince  of  eighteen 
winters. 

91.  GROUP  III. 


20. 

twentig 

80. 

hundeahtatig 

21. 

an  Qnd  twentig 

90. 

hundnigontig 

30. 

•Sritig 

100. 

hund 

40. 

feowertig 

200. 

twa  hund 

50. 

flftig 

1000. 

•Susend 

60. 

siextig 

2000. 

twa  ftusend 

70. 

hundseofontig 

All  these  numbers  are  employed  as  neuter  singular 
nouns,  and  are  followed  by  the  genitive  plural :  Naefde 
he  peah  mt  Sonne  twentig  hrySera.  and  twentig  sceapa,  and 


Numerals.  59 

twentig  swyna,  He  did  not  have,  however,  more  than  tiventy 
(of)  cattle,  and  twenty  (o/")  sheep,  and  twenty  (of)  stvine  ; 
Hie  haefdon  hundeahtatig  scipa.  They  had  eighty  ships; 
twa  hund  mlla  brad,  two  hundred  miles  broad  ;  Seer  wgeron 
seofon  hund  giiSfanena  genumen.  there  were  seven  hundred 
standards  captured;  an  Susend  m9nna,  a  thousand  men; 
Hannibales  folces  waes  twa  Susend  ofslageu,  Of  Hanni- 
baVs  men  there  were  two  thousand  slain;  Hie  acuron 
endlefan  Suseud  mgnna,  They  chose  eleven  thousand  men. 

NOTE  1.  —  Group  III  is  rarely  inflected.  Almost  the  only  inflec- 
tional endings  that  are  added  are  (1)  -es,  a  genitive  singular  termina- 
tion for  the  numerals  in  -tig,  and  (2)  -e,  a  dative  singular  for  hund. 
(1)  The  first  is  confined  to  adjectives  expressing  extent  of  space  or 
time,  as,  eald,  old;  brad,  broad;  heah.  high;  and  Igng.  lony :  Saet 
is  Sritiges  niOa  l$ng,  that  is  thirty  miles  long ;  He  waes  Srltiges 
geara  eald.  Iff  was  thirty  years  old.  (2)  The  second  is  employed 
after  mid:  mid  twaem  hunde  scipa,  with  tiro  hundred  ships ;  mid 
Srim  hunde  mqnna,  with  three  hundred  men ;  f)ser  wearS  .  .  .  Reg- 
ulus  gefangen  mid  V  hunde  mpima.  There  was  Reyulus  captured 
with  jive  hundred  men. 

The  statement  made  in  nearly  all  the  grammars  that  hunde  occurs 
as  a  nominative  and  accusative  plural  is  without  foundation. 

NOTE  2.  —  Many  numerals,  otherwise  indeclinable,  are  used  in  the 
genitive  plural  with  the  indefinite  pronoun  sum,  which  then  means 
one  of  a  certain  number.  In  this  peculiar  construction,  the  numeral 
always  precedes  sum:  feowera  sum,  one  of  four  (=  with  three 
others') ;  He  saede  bset  he  syxa  sum  ofsloge  syxtig.  He  said  that 
he,  icithjive  others,  slew  sixty  (whales');  He  waes  feowertigra  sum, 
He  was  one  of  forty. 

NOTE  3.  —  These  are  the  most  common  constructions  with  the  Cardi- 
nals. The  forms  in  -tig  have  only  recently  been  investigated.  A  study 
of  Wiilfing's  citations  shows  that  Alfred  occasionally  uses  the  forms  in 
-tig  (1)  as  adjectives  with  plural  inflections:  mid  XXXgum  cyning- 
um,  with  thirty  kings ;  and  (2)  as  nouns  with  plural  inflections:  aefter 
siextigum  daga,  after  sixty  days.  But  both  constructions  are  rare. 


60 


Etymology  and  Syntax. 


(b)  Ordinals. 

92.   The  Ordinals,  except  the  first  two,  are  formed 
from  the  Cardinals.     They  are: 

1.  forma,  airesta,  fyrsta 

2.  oSer,  sefterra 

3.  Sridda 

4.  feorSa 

5.  fifta 

6.  siexta 

7.  seofofta 

8.  eahtofta 


11.  endlefta 

12.  tw^lfta 

13.  •Sreoteo'Sa 

14.  feowerteoSa 

15.  flfteofla 

etc. 

20.  twentigoSa 

21.  an  Qiid  twentigofta 
9.     nigofta                                    30.     SrltigoSa 

10.     teo«a  etc. 

NOTE. — There  are  no  Ordinals  corresponding  to  bund  and  Susend. 

With  the  exception  of  oSer  (§  77),  all  the  Ordi- 
nals are  declined  as  Weak  Adjectives;  the  article, 
however,  as  in  Mn.E.,  is  frequently  omitted:  Brutus 
waes  se  forma  consul,  Brutus  was  the  first  consul ;  H§r 
endaS  seo  eereste  boc,  9nd  onginneS  seo  63er,  Here  the 
first  book  ends,  and  the  second  begins;  Sy  flftan  daege, 
on  the  fifth  day ;  on  Seem  teoSan  geare  hiera  gewinnes, 
in  the  tenth  year  of  their  strife;  Heo  waes  tw^lfte,  She 
was  twelfth  ;  Se  waes  feorSa  fr9m  Agusto,  He  was  fourth 
from  Augustus. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

ADVERBS,  PREPOSITIONS,  AND  CONJUNCTIONS. 
Adverbs. 

93.  (1)  Adverbs  are  formed  by  adding  -e  or  -lice  to 
the  corresponding  adjectives:  soS,  true;  soSe  or  soSlice, 
"truly;  earmlic,  wretched;  earmlice,  wretchedly;  wid, 


Adverbs,  Prepositions,  and   Conjunctions.         61 

wide;  wide,  widely;  micel,  great;  micle  (micele), greatly, 
much. 

(2)  The  terminations  -e  and  -lice  are  replaced  in  some 
adverbs  by  -(l)unga  or  -(l)inga  :  eallunga,  entirely  ;  fseringa, 
suddenly;  grundlunga,  from  the  ground,  completely. 

NOTE  1.  —  In  Mn.E.  headlong,  darkling,  and  groveling,  originally 
adverbs,  we  have  survivals  of  these  endings. 

(3)  The  genitive  case  is  frequently  used  adverbially : 
suSeweardes,    southicards ;     ealles.     altogether,    entirely; 
deeges.    by  day ;    nihtes,  by  night;   Sees,  from  that  time, 
afterwards.      Of.  hys  (=his)  weges  in  Donne   rideS  selc 
hys  weges,  Then  rides  each  his  way. 

NOTE  2.  —  The  adverbial  genitive  is  abundantly  preserved  in  Mn.E. 
Always,  crossways,  sideways,  needs  (=  necessarily^),  sometimes,  etc.,  are 
not  plurals,  but  old  genitive  singulars.  The  same  construction  is  seen  in 
of  course,  of  a  truth,  of  an  evening,  of  old,  of  late,  and  similar  phrases. 

(4)  Dative  and  instrumental  plurals  may  be  used  as 
adverbs :  hwllum,  at  times,  sometimes  [whilom]  ;  stundum 
(stund  —period),  from  time  to  time;    miclum,  greatly. 
Especially  common  is  the  suffix  -meelum  (mael  =  time, 
measure  [meal]),  preserved  adverbially  in  Mn.E.  piece- 
meal :  dropmaslum,  drop  by  drop ;  styccemeelum   (stycce 
=  piece),  piecemeal,  here  and  there. 

(5)  The  suffix  -an  usually  denotes  motion  from: 

her,  here.  hider,  hither.  heonan,  hence. 

Saer.  there.  Sider,  thither.  Spnaii.  thence. 

hwaer,  where  t  hwider,  whither  f  hwpnan,  whence  ? 

nor  San.  from  the  north, 

eastan.  from  the  east. 

hindan,  from  behind. 

feorran,  from  far. 

utan,  from  without. 


62  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

(6)  The  adverb  rihte  (riht  =  right,  straight)  denotes 
motion  toward  in  norSrihte,  northward,  due  north;  east- 
rihte.  due  east ;  suSrihte.  due  south;  westrihte,  due  west. 


Prepositions. 

94.  The  nominative  is  the  only  case  in  O.E.  that  is 
never  governed  by  a  preposition.  Of  the  other  cases, 
the  dative  and  accusative  occur  most  frequently  with 
prepositions. 

(1)  The  prepositions  that  are  most  frequently  found 
with  the  dative  are: 

aefter,  after.  frpm  (fram),/rom,  by. 

set,  at.  mid,  with. 

be  (bi),  by,  near,  about.  of,  of,  from. 

betweonan  (betuh),  between.  to,  to. 

butan  (buton),  except.  toforan,  before. 

for,  for.  toweard,  toward. 

(2)  The  following  prepositions  require  the  accusative : 

geond,  throughout  [be-yond].    3urh,  through. 

ofer,  over,  upon.  ymbe,  about,  around  [urn-while, 

08,  until,  up  to.  ember-days]. 

(3)  The  preposition  on  (rarely  in),  meaning  into,  is 
usually  followed  by  the  accusative;  but  meaning  in,  on, 
or  during,  it  takes  the  dative  or  instrumental.     The 
preposition  wiS,  meaning  toward,  may  be  followed  by 
the  genitive,  dative,  or  accusative;  but  meaning  against, 
and  implying  motion  or  hostility,  the  accusative  is  more 
common. 

(4)  The  following  phrases  are  used  prepositionally 
with  the  dative: 


Adverbs,  Prepositions,  and  Conjunctions.          63 

be  norSan,  north  of.  to  eacan,  in  addition  to. 

be  eastan,  east  of.  on  emnlange  (efn-lang  =  evenly 

be  suSan,  south  of.  long),  along. 

be  westan,  west  of.  to  emnes,  along. 

(5)  Prepositions  regularly  precede  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun that  they  introduce;  but  by  their  adverbial  nature 
they  are  sometimes  drawn  in  front  of  the  verb:  And 
him  wees  mycel  m^negu  to  gegaderod,  And  there  was  gath- 
ered unto  him  a  great  multitude.  In  relative  clauses 
introduced  by  Se,  the  preceding  position  is  very  com- 
mon: ago  sclr  ...  Se  he  on  bude,  the  district,  .  .  . 
which  he  dwelt  in  ( =  which  he  in-habited^) ;  He  wees 
awySe  spedig  man  on  Seem  aehtuni  Se  hiera  speda  on  beoS, 
He  was  a  very  rich  man  in  those  possessions  'which  their 
riches  consist  in  ;  nyhat  Seem  tune  Se  se  deada  man  on  liS, 
nearest  the  town  that  the  dead  man  lies  in. 

Conjunctions. 

95.    (1)  The  most  frequently  occurring  conjunctions 

are: 

ac,  but.  for  3y,  therefore. 

ser,  before,  ere.  gif,  if. 

butan  (buton),  except  that,  unless.  hwaeSer,  whether. 

eac.  aiso  [eke].  9nd  (and),  and. 

for  Saem  oSSe,  or. 


for  Seem  Se, 
for  Son. 


because. 


Saet,  that,  so  that. 
Seah,  though,  however. 


for  Son  Se, 
(2)  The  correlative  conjunctions  are  : 


er  ge ge.          both and. 

aegSer oSer 

oSSe  .  .  oSSe 


64  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

ne ne,  neither nor. 

sam -.  .  sam,       whether or. 

[the the. 

swa swa 

L  as as. 

[  when then. 

oonne oonne  j 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS. 
Adjectives. 

96.  (1)  Adjectives  are  regularly  compared  by  add- 
ing -ra  for  the  comparative,  and  -ost  (rarely  -est)  for 
the  superlative : 


Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

earm,  poor 

earmra 

earmoat 

rice,  rich 

ricra 

ricost 

smael.  narrow 

smaelra 

smalost 

brad,  broad 

bradra  (breedra) 

bradost 

swift,  swift 

swiftra 

swiftest 

(2)  Forms  with  i-umlaut   usually  have   superlative 
in  -est : 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

eald,  <>ld  ieldra  ieldest 

l9ng,  long  l^ngra  longest 

strqng,  strong  str^ngra  strongest 

geong,  young  giengra  giengest 

heah,  high  hierra  hiehst 

(3)  The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregu- 
larly : 


Comparison  of  Adjectives  and  Adverbs.  65 


Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

god,  good 

betra 

betst 

lytel,  little,  small 

Isessa 

last 

micel,  great,  much 

mara 

maest 

yfel,  bad 

wiersa 

wierst 

(4)  The  positive  is  sometimes  supplied  by  an  adverb  : 

Positive^  Comparative.  Superlative. 

feor,  far  fierra                             fiercest 

neah.  near  nearra                           niehst 

eer,  before  eerra,  former                serest,  first 

(5)  The  comparatives  all  follow  the  Weak  Declen- 
sion.    The  superlatives,  when  preceded  by  the  definite 
article,  are  weak  ;    but  when  used  predicatively  they 
are  frequently  strong  :     se   Isesta    dal,   the  least  part  ; 
Donne  cymeS  se  man  se   Sset  swiftoste  hors  hafaS  to  Seem 
aerestan   daele   and  to  Seem   msestan,   Then   comes   the  man 
that  has  the  swiftest  horse  to  the  first  part  and  to  the 
largest.      But,  Saet  byne  land  is  easteweard  bradost  (not 
bradoste),  the  cultivated  land  is  broadest  eastward;  and 
(hit)  biS  ealra  wyrta  meest,  and  it  is  largest  of  all  herbs  ; 
Ac  hyra  (  =  hiera)  ar  is  maest  on  Seem  gafole  3e  S§.  Finnas 
him  gyldaS,  But  their  income  is  greatest  in  the   tribute 
that  the  Fins  pay  them. 

(6)  The   comparative  is  usually  followed  by  Sonne 
and    the    nominative   case  :    Se    hweel    bi3    micle    leessa 
Sonne  oSre  hwalas,  That  ivhale  is  much  smaller  than  other 
whales  ;    Da    wunda    Saes    modes   beoS   digelran   Sonne   3a 
wunda  Sees  iichaman.  The  wounds  of  the  mind  are  more 
secret  than  the  ivounds  of  the  body. 

But  when  Sonne  is  omitted,  the  comparative  is  fol- 
lowed   by   the   dative  :     Ure    Allesend,    Se   mara  is 


66  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

meerra  eallum  gesceaftum,  Our  Redeemer,  who  is  greater 
and  more  glorious  than  all  created  things  ;  ne  ongeat  h§ 
no  hiene  selfne  b^tran  oSrum  godum  mpnnum.  nor  did  he 
consider  himself  better  than  other  good  men. 

Adverbs. 

97.  (1)  Adverbs  are  regularly  compared  by  adding 
•  or  for  the  comparative  and  -ost  (rarely  -est)  for  the 
superlative  : 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

georne,  willingly  geornor  geornost 

awiSe,  very,  severely  swiSor,  more  swiSost,  most,  chiefly 

eer,  before  eeror,  formerly  eerest,  first 

norS.  northwards .  norSor  1101  Smest l 

(2)  The  comparatives  of  a  few  adverbs  may  be  found 
by  dropping  -ra  of  the  corresponding  adjective  form  : 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

Ipnge,  long  l$ng  longest 

micle,  inii.<-h  ma     '  maest 

wel,  well  b§t  b^tst 

Expressions  of  Time. 

98.  (1)  Duration  of  time  and  extent  of  space  are 
usually   expressed   by   the    accusative   case :    Ealle   Sa 
hwne  3e  Saet  He  biS  inne,  All  the  time  that  the  body  is 
within;  twegen  dagas,  for  two  days;  ealne  weg,  all  the 
way,  always. 

1  This  is  really  a  double  superlative,  m  being  itself  an  old  superla- 
tive suffix.  Cf.  Latin  opti-m-us.  In  Mn.E.  northmost  and  hindmost, 
-m-est  has  been  confused  with,  -most,  with  which  etymologically  it  has 
nothing  to  do. 


Comparison  of  Adjectives  and  Adverbs.  67 

(2)  Time   when   is   more    often    expressed    by   the 
instrumental  case  when  no  preposition  is  used  :  Sy  ilcan 
deege,  the  same  day ;    eelce  geare,  each  year;    3y  geare, 
that  year ;    selce  deege,  each  day. 

(3)  Time  or  space  within  which  is  expressed  by  on 
and  the  dative:   on   sumera,  in  summer ;  on  wintra,  in 
winter ;  on  flf  dagum,  in  five  days ;  on  flf  mllum,  in  five 
miles ;  on  Sissum  geare,  in  this  year;  on  Seem  timan,  in 
those  times.     Sometimes  by  the  genitive  without  a  pre- 
ceding preposition:  Sees  ggares,  in  that  year. 

99.          VOCABULARY. 


Saet  gefylce  [folc],  troop,  division. 

Seet  Iqnd  (land),  land. 

seo  mil,  mile. 

63er  .  .  .  oSer,  the  one  .  .  .  the 
other;  the  former  .  .  .  the  lat- 
ter. 


sS  sige,  victory. 

sige1  habban,   to  win  (the)  vic- 
tory. 

sprecan,  to  speak. 
Saet  swin  (swyn),  swine,  hog. 
weste,  waste. 


100.  EXERCISES. 

I.  1.  He  haefS  Sreo  swit5e  swift  hors.  2.  Ic  haebbe  nigon- 
t-iene  sceap  ond  ma  Sonne  twentig  swlna.  3.  Seo  gode  cwen 
eiest  twa  hund  monna.  4.  Uton  feohtan  wi(5  Sa  D^iie  mid 
Srim  hunde  scipa.  5.  Qnd  hie  wseron  on  twsem  gefylcum : 
on  65rum  waes 2  Bachs^cg  ^nd  Half d^ne  6a  heeSnan  cyningas, 
ond  on  oftrum  wseron  <5a  eorlas.  6.  Du  spriest  soSlice. 
7.  Donne  rit  selc  niQn  his  weges.  8.  ^Efter  monigum  da- 
gum,  hasfde  Alfred  cyning3  sige.  9.  Dis  l9nd  is  weste 
styccemgelum.  10.  Des  feld  is  fiftiges  mila  brad.  11.  ^El- 

1  Sige  usually,  but  not  invariably,  precedes  habban. 
*See  p.  100,  note  on  gefeaht. 

3  The  proper  noun  comes  first  in  appositive  expressions :  Alfred 
cyning,  Sidroc  eorl,  Heahmund  bisceop. 


68  •   .     Etymology  and  Syntax. 

fred  cyning  hsefde  monige  friend,  for  Seem  Se  he  wses  segSei 
ge  wls  ge  god.  12.  Da  hwalas,  $e  M  ymbe  spriest,  sind 
micle  Isessan  oSrum  hwalum.  13.  Heo  is  ieldre  Sonne 
hiere  svvuster,  ac  mm  broSor  is  ieldra  Sonne  heo.  14.  We 
oumaS  to  Sifiin  tune  selce  geare.  15.  Da  m^n  5e  8a  swift- 
ostan  hors  haefdon  waeron  mid  Seem  D^num  feower  dagas. 

II.  1.  Our  army  (werod)  was  in  two  divisions:  one  was 
large,  the  other  was  small.  2.  The  richest  men  in  the 
kingdom  have  more  (ma)  than  thirty  ships.  3.  He  was 
much  wiser  than  his  brother.  4.  He  fights  against  the 
Northumbrians  with  two  ships.  5.  After  three  years 
7£ing  Alfred  gained  the  victory.  6.  Whosoever  chooses 
Ihese  gifts,  chooses  well.  7.  This  man's  son  is  both  wiser 
i-'nd  better  than  his  father.  8.  When  the  king  rides,  then 
ride  his  thanes  also.  9.  The  richest  men  are  not  always  (a) 
tfie  wisest  men. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

STRONG  VERBS:  CLASS  I.     (See  §  17.) 

Syntax  of  Moods. 

101.  Of  the  three  hundred  simple  verbs  belonging 
to  the  O.E.  Strong  Conjugation,  it  is  estimated^  that 
seventy-eight  have  preserved  their  strong  inflections 
in  Mn.E.,  that  eighty-eight  have  become  weak,  and 
that  the  remaining  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  have 
entirely  disappeared,  their  places  being  taken  in  most 
cases  by  verbs  of  Latin  origin  introduced  through 
the  Norman-French. 


1  Lounsbury,  English  Language,  Part   II,  §  241. 


Strong  Verbs. 


69 


NOTE. — Only  the  simple  or  primitive  verbs,  not  the  compound 
forms,  are  here  taken  into  consideration.  The  proportionate  loss, 
therefore,  is  really  much  greater.  O.E.  abounded  in  formative  prefixes. 
"Thus  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  f  16 wan,  to  flow,  ten  new  compounds 
were  formed  by  the  addition  of  various  prefixes,  of  which  ten,  only  one, 
oferflowan.  to  overflow,  survives  with  us.  In  a  similar  manner,  from 
the  verb  sittan,  to  sit,  thirteen  new  verbs  were  formed,  of  which  not 
a  single  one  is  to  be  found  to-day."  Lounsbury,  ib.  Part  I,  p.  107. 


102.  Class  I:  The  "Drive"  Conjugation. 

Vowel  Succession  :  I,  a,  i,  i. 

INFINITIVE.      PRETERIT  SING.      PRETERIT  PLUR.        PAST  PART. 
Drif-an  draf  drif-on          gedrif-en,  to  drive. 


Indicative. 

PRESENT. 
Sing.  1.     Ic  drif-e 

2.  M  drif-st  (drif-est) 

3.  he  drif-S  (drif-e«) 

Plur.  1.     we  1 

2.  g6    !-drlf-a« 

3.  hie  j 

PRETERIT. 
Sing.  1.     Ic  draf 

2.  «u  drif-e 

3.  h6  draf 


Plur.  1.     we  ' 

2.  ge 

3.  hie 


drif-on 


Subjunctive. 

PRESENT. 
Sing.  1.     Ic   1 

2.  M  !- drif-e 

3.  he  j 

Plur.  1.     we  1 

2.  ge    i-  drif-en 

3.  hie  j 


PRETERIT. 
Sing.  1.     Ic 


2.     «u 


drif-e 


3.  h6 

Plur.  1.  we  I 

2.  ge   I  drif-en 

3.  hie 


Imperative. 

Sing.  2.     drif 

Plur.  1.     drif-an 
2.     drif-a« 


Infinitive, 
drif-an 


Present  Participle, 
drlf-ende 


Gerund.  Past  Participle. 

t6  drif-anne  (-enne)  gedrif-en 


70  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

Tense  Formation  of  Strong  Verbs. 

103.  (1)  It  will  be  seen  from   the   conjugation    of 
drifan    that    the  present   stem   in   all   strong   verbs    is 
used   throughout    the    present   indicative,  the   present 
subjunctive,  the  imperative,  the  infinitive,  the  gerund, 
and  the  present  participle.     More  than  half  of  the  end- 
ings, therefore,  of  the   Strong  Conjugation  are  added 
directly  to  the  present  stem. 

(2)  That  the  preterit  singular  stem  is  used  in  only 
two  forms  of  the  verb,  the  1st  and  3d  persons  singular 
of  the  preterit  indicative  :  Ic  draf,  he  draf. 

(3)  That   the  preterit  plural   stem    is    used   in    the 
preterit  plural  indicative,  in  the  second  person  of  the 
preterit   singular   indicative,  and  in   the  singular  and 
plural  of  the  preterit  subjunctive. 

(4)  That  the  stem  of  the  past  participle  (gedrif-)  is 
used  for  no  other  form. 

Syntax  of  the  Verb. 

104.  The  Indicative  Mood J  represents  the  predicate 
as  a  reality.     It  is  used   both  in  independent  and  in 
dependent   clauses,  its   function   in   O.E.    correspond- 
ing with  its  function  in  Mn.E. 

105.  The  Subjunctive  Mood  represents  the  predicate 
as  an  idea?     It  is  of  far  more  frequent  occurrence  in 
O.E.  than  in  Mn.E. 

1  Usage  sanctions  mood,  but  the  better  spelling  would  be  mode.    It 
is  from  the  Lat.  modus,  whereas  mood  (=  temper)  is  O.E.  mod. 

2  Gildersleeve's  Latin  Grammar,  §  255. 


Strong   Verbs.  71 

1.  When    used   in    independent   clauses   it   denotes 
desire,  command,  or  entreaty,  and  usually  precedes  its 
subject :  Sle  8m  nama  gehalgod,  Hallowed  be  Thy  name  ; 
Ne  sw^rigen  ge,  Do  not  swear. 

2.  In  dependent  clauses  it  denotes  uncertainty,  possi- 
bility, or  mere  futurity.1    (a)  Concessive  clauses  (intro- 
duced by  Seah,  though)  and  (5)  temporal  clauses  (intro- 
duced by  eer,  eer  Seem  Se,  before)  are  rarely  found  with 
any  other  mood  than  the  subjunctive.   The  subjunctive  is 
also  regularly  used  in  Alfredian  prose  (c)  after  verbs  of 
saying,  even  when  no  suggestion  of  doubt  or  discredit 
attaches  to  the  narration.2      "  Whether  the  statement 
refer  to  a  fact  or  not,  whether  the  subject-matter  be 
vouched  for  by  the  reporter,  as  regards  its  objective 
reality  and  truth,  the   subjunctive  does   not   tell.     It 
simply   represents    a    statement    as    reported " 3 :    Seah 
man   asftte  twegen  feetels  full  ealaS  oSSe  weeteres,  though 
one  set  two  vessels  full  of  ale  or  ivater  ;  eer  Seem  Se  hit 
call  forhfrgod  weere,  before  it  was  all  ravaged;  He  seede 
Seet  NorSmanna  land  weere  swySe  lang  and  swySe  smael, 
He  said  that  the  Norwegians'1  land  was  very  long  and 
very  narrow. 

1  Thus  when  Alfred  writes  that  an  event  took  place  before  the 
founding  of  Rome,  he  uses  the  subjunctive :    eer  Seem  Se  Rome- 
burh  getimbrod  weere  =   before   Borne   were  founded;    but,   set- 
ter  Seem    Se   RSmeburh    getimbrod   wees   =   after   Some    was 
founded. 

2  "By  the  time  of  JElfric,  however,  the  levelling  .influence  of  the 
indicative  [after  verbs  of  saying]  has  made  considerable  progress."  — 
Gorrell,   Indirect    Discourse    in   Anglo-Saxon    (Dissertation,    1895), 
p.  101. 

3  Hotz,    On  the    Use  of  the   Subjunctive   Mood  in   Anglo-Saxon 
(Zurich,  1882). 


72  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

106.  The   Imperative   is  the  mood  of  command  or 
intercession  :   Johannes,  cum  to  me,  John,  come   to  me', 
And  f orgyf  us  ure  gyltas,  And  forgive  us  our  trespasses ; 
Ne  drif  us  fram  3e,  Do  not  drive  us  from  thee. 

107.  (1)  The    Infinitive    and    Participles    are    used 
chiefly  in  verb-phrases  (§§  138-141);  but  apart  from 
this   function,    the    Infinitive,    being    a    neuter    noun, 
may  serve  as  the  subject  or  direct  object  of  a  verb. 
Hatan    (to    command,    bid),  laetan   (to  let,  permit),  and 
onginnan  (to  begin)  are  regularly  followed  by  the  Infin- 
itive:   Hine   ridan   lyste,   To   ride  pleased   him;    Het   3a 
beere    s^ttan,    He    bade    set   down    the    bier ; l   LeetaS    3a 
lytlingas  to  me   cuman,   Let  the  little  ones  come    to    me; 
Sa  ongann  he  sprecan,  then  began  he  to  speak. 

(2)  The  Participles  may  be  used  independently  in 
the  dative  absolute  construction  (an  imitation  of  the 
Latin  ablative  absolute),  usually  for  the  expression  of 
time  :2  Him  Sa  gyt  sprecendum.  While  he  was  yet  speaking  ; 
gefylledum  dagum,  the  days  having  been  fulfilled . 

108.  The  Gerund,  or  Gerundial  Infinitive,  is  used: 

(1)  To  express  purpose:    Ut  eode   se   sawere  his   seed 
to  sawenne.  Out  went  the  sower  his  seed  to  sow. 

(2)  To  expand  or  determine  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or 
adjective :  Symon.  ic  haebbe  Se  to  s^cgenne  sum  Sing.  Simon, 
I  have  something  to  say  to  thee  ;  Hit  is  sc9ndlic  ymb  swelc 
to  sprecanne.  It  is  shameful  to  speak  about  such  things. 

1  Not,  He  commanded  the  bier  to  be  set  down.     The  Mn.E.  passive 
in  such  sentences  is  a  loss  both  in  force  and  directness. 

2  Callaway,  The  Absolute  Participle  in  Anglo-Saxon  (Dissertation, 
1889),  p.  19. 


Strong  Verbs.  73 

(3)  After  beon  (wesan)  to  denote  duty  or  necessity: 
Hwaet  is  nu  ma  ymbe  Sis  to  sprecanne,  What  more  is 
there  now  to  say  about  this?  Sonne  is  to  geo^ncenne 
hwaet  Crist  self  cwaeS,  then  it  behooves  to  bethink  what 
Christ  himself  said. 

NOTE.  — The  Gerund  is  simply  the  dative  case  of  the  Infinitive  after 
to.  It  began  very  early  to  supplant  the  simple  Infinitive ;  hence  the 
use  of  to  with  the  Infinitive  in  Mn.E.  As  late  as  the  Elizabethan  age 
the  Gerund  sometimes  replaced  the  Infinitive  even  after  the  auxiliary 

"  Some  pagan  shore, 

Where  these  two  Christian  armies  might  combine 
The  blood  of  malice  in  a  vein  of  league, 
And  not  to  spend  it  so  unneighbourly." 

—  King  John,  V,  2,  39. 

When  to  lost  the  meaning  of  purpose  and  came  to  be  considered  as 
a  merely  formal  prefix,  for  was  used  to  supplement  the  purpose  ele- 
ment :  What  icent  ye  out  for  to  see  ?l 

1  This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  Gerund  in  Mn.E.,  the  so-called 
"infinitive  in  -ing."  The  whole  subject  has  been  befogged  for  the 
lack  of  an  accepted  nomenclature,  one  that  shall  do  violence  neither 
to  grammar  nor  to  history. 


74 


Etymology  and  Syntax. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 

STRONG  VERBS:  CLASSES  II  AND  III. 
109.         Class  II:    The  "Choose"  Conjugation. 
Vowel  Succession :  eo,  ea,  u,  o. 


INFINITIVE.1      PRET.  SING.      PRET.  PLUR.2 

PAST  PART.2 

ceos-an, 

ceas,               cur-on, 

gecor-en,  to  choose, 

Indicative. 
PRESENT. 

Subjunctive. 
PRESENT. 

Sing.  1.    Ic  ceos-e                              Sing. 
2.    '5u  ciest  (ceos-est) 
3.    he  ciest  (ceos-etS) 

1.     Ic 
2.    ftu      ceos-e 
3.    he  , 

Plur.  1.    w6  " 

Plur. 

1.    we  j 

2.    ge 
3.    hie  . 

ceos-a* 

2.    gef  ceos-en 
3.    hieJ 

PRETERIT. 

PRETERIT. 

Sing.  1.     Ic  ceas                                  Sing. 
2.    ftu  cur-e 

1.     Ic 
2.    'Su     cur-e 

3.    he  ceas 

3.    he  j 

Plur.  1.    we 

Plur. 

1.    we  "I 

2.    ge 
3.    hie  . 

cur-on 

2.    ge    \  cur-en 
3.    hie  J 

Imperative.          Infinitive.        Present  Participle. 

Sing.  2.    ceos                        ceos-an                     ceos-ende 

Plur.  1.    ceos-an 
2.    ceos-a«                Gerund. 
t5  cSos-anne  (-enne) 

Past  Participle. 

gecor-en 

1  A  few  verbs  of  Class  II  have  u  instead  of  eo  in  the  infinitive : 

brucan,   breac,    brucon,   gebrocen,   to  enjoy  [brook]. 
bugan,      beag,      bugon,     gebogen,     to  betid,  bow. 

2  By  a  law  known  as  Grammatical  Change,  final  8,  B,  and  h  of 
strong  verbs  generally  become  d,  r,  and  g,  respectively,  in  the  preterit 
plural  and  past  participle. 


Strong  Verbs. 


75 


110.          Class  III:   The  "Bind"  Conjugation. 

Vowel  Succession  :      r ,  a,  u,      [• . 

e  j  o  j 

The  present  stem  ends  in  m,  n,  l,  r,  or  h,  +  one  or 
more  consonants : 

f  belomp  ] 

m  :     belimp-an,    !  r ,  belump-on,    belump-en,    to  belong. 

I  belamp  j 


n :      bind-aii. 


bund-on, 


gebund-en,    to  bind. 
geholp-en,     to  help. 


I  band  J  ' 

1 :       help-an.  healp,  hulp-on. 

r :      weor3-an,       wearS,  wurd-on,        geword-en,    to  become. 

h :      gefeoht-an,     gefeaht,  gefuht-on,      gefoht-en,      to  fight. 


NOTE  1.  —  If  the  present  stem  ends  in  a  nasal  (m,  n)  -f  a  consonant, 
the  past  participle  retains  the  u  of  the  pret.  plur. ;  but  if  the  present 
stem  ends  in  a  liquid  (1,  r)  or  h,  +  a  consonant,  the  past  participle 
has  o  instead  of  u. 

NOTE  2.  —  Why  do  we  not  find  *halp,  *warS,  and  *faht  in  the  pret. 
sing.  ?  Because  a  before  1,  r,  or  h,  +  a  consonant,  underwent  "break- 
ing" to  ea.  Breaking  also  changes  every  e  followed  by  r  or  h,  +  a 
consonant,  to  eo:  weorSan  (<  *werSan),  feohtan  (<  *iehtan). 


111.  Indicative. 

PRESENT. 
Sing.  1.    Ic  bind-e 

2.  M  bintst  (bind-est) 

3.  he  bint  (bind-e«) 

Plur.  1.    we  ] 

2.    ge    i  bind-aft 
3.-    hleJ 

PRETERIT. 
Sing.  1.    Ic  bo.nd 

2.  «u  bund-e 

3.  h6  bond 


Subjunctive. 

PRESENT. 
Sing.  1.    Ic 

2.  «u 

3.  he 

Plur.  1.    we 

2.  ge 

3.  hie  J 


bind-e 


bind-en 


PRETERIT. 
.  1.     Ic 

2.  M    [  bund-e 

3.  he 


76 


Etymology  and  Syntax. 


PRETERIT. 
Plur.  1.    we 


hie 


bund-on 


Imperative. 

Sing.  2.    bind 
Plur.  1.    bind-an 
2.    bind-aft 


Infinitive. 

bind-an 


PRETERIT. 
Plur.  1.    we  1 

2.  ge    |-  bund-en 

3.  hleJ 

Present  Participle. 

bind-ende 


Gerund. 

t5  bind-anne  (-enne) 


Past  Participle. 

gebund-en 


112. 


VOCABULARY. 


Saet  gefeoht,  fight,  battle. 

seo  ger^cednes,  narration  [r^c- 
can]. 

Saet  gesceap,  creation  [sciep- 
pan]. 

seo  he,rgung  (§  39,  (3)),  harrying, 
plundering  [hejgian]. 

s§  medu  (medo)  (§  51),  mead. 

seo  meolc,  milk. 

s§  middangeard,  world  [middle- 
yard]. 


se  munuc,  monk  [monachus]. 

seo  myre,  mare  [mearh]. 

he  seede,  he  said. 

Me  saedon.  they  said. 

seo  sped,  riches  [speed]. 

spedig,  rich,  prosperous  [speedy]. 

seo  tid,  time  [tide]. 

unspedig,  poor. 

se  westanwind,  west-wind. 

Saet  win,  wine. 


arisaii. 

arts, 

arison, 

arisen, 

to  arise. 

bidan. 

bad, 

bidon, 

gebiden, 

to    remain,   expect 
(with  gen.) 

dreogan,1 

dreag, 

drugon, 

gedrogen, 

to  endure,  suffer. 

drincan, 

drone, 

druncon, 

gedruncen, 

to  drink. 

findan, 

fond, 

fundon, 

gefunden, 

to  find. 

geswlcan 

geswac. 

geswicon. 

geswicen, 

to  cease,  cease  from 
(with  gen.) 

iernan  (yrnan), 

901, 

union. 

geurnen, 

to  run. 

ongimian. 

ong9nn, 

ongunnon, 

ongunnen, 

to  begin. 

ridan. 

rad, 

ridon, 

geriden. 

to  ride. 

singan, 

S9ng, 

sungon, 

gesungen, 

to  sing. 

wrltan, 

wrtt, 

writon, 

gewriten, 

to  write. 

Of.  the  Scotch  "to  dree  one's  weird"  =  to  endure  one's  fate. 


Strong  Verbs.  77 

113.  EXERCISES. 

I.  1.  ^Efter  Sissum  wordum,  se  munuc  wrat  ealle  fca  ger§- 
cednesse  on  anre  bee.       2.  Da  eorlas  ridon  up  ser  5aem  Se  <5a 
D^ne  <5ses  gefeohtes  geswicen.       3.  Caedmon  s$ng  eerest  be 
middangeardes  gesceape.        4.  Se  cyning  ond  Sa  ricostan 
m^n  drincaft  myran  meolc,  ond  t5a  unspedigan  drincaS  medu. 
5.  Qnd  he  aras  ond  se  wind  geswac.       6.  Hie  ssedon  6aet  hie 
5ger  westwindes  biden.       7.  Hwset  is  nu  ma  ymbe  t5as  Sing 
to  sprecanne  ?       8.  Da  s^cgas  ongunnon  geswlcan  SEere  h^r- 
gunga.        9.  Da  beag  Sset  lond  tJeer  eastryhte,  oSSe  seo  see 
in  on  Saet  lond.        10.  Das  lond  belimpaS  to  SBem  En  glum. 
11.  Deah  Sa  D^ne  ealne  dseg  gefuhten,  giet  hsefde  Alfred 
cyning  sige.       12.  Qnd  Sees  (afterwards)  ymbe  anne  monatS 
gefeaht  Alfred  cyning  wiS  ealne  ftone  h^re  set  Wiltune. 

II.  1.  The  most  prosperous  men  drank  mare's  milk  and 
wine,  but  the  poor  men  drank  mead.       2.  I  suffered  many 
things  before  you  began  to  help  me  (dat.).       3.  About  two 
days  afterwards  (Dees  ymbe  twegen  dagas),  the  plundering 
ceased.       4.  The  king  said  that  he  fought  against  all  the 
army  (h^re).       5.  Although  the  Danes  remained  one  month 
(§  98,  (1)),  they  did  not  begin  to  fight.        6.  These  gifts 
belonged  to  my  brother.       7.  The  earls  were  glad  because 
their  lord  was  (indicative)  with  them.       8.  What  did  you 
find?       9.  Then  wrote  he  about  (be)  the  wise  man's  deeds. 
10.  What  more  is  there  to  endure? 


78  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

CHAPTER   XX. 

STRONG  VERBS  :  CLASSES  IV,  V,  VI,  AND  VII. 
CONTRACT  VERBS. 

[The  student  can  now  complete  the  conjugation  for  himself  (§  1O3). 
Only  the  principal  parts  will  be  given.] 

114.         Class  IV:    The  "Bear"  Conjugation. 
Vowel  Succession :   e,  ae,  se,  o. 

The  present  stem  ends  in  1,  r,  or  m,  no  consonant 
following : 

1:      hel-an,    hael,  heel-on,  gehol-en,    to  conceal. 

i:       ber-aii,    beer,  beer-on,  gebor-en,    to  bear. 

The  two  following  verbs  are  slightly  irregular : 
iiim-an.   nom(nam),  nom-on  (nam-on),  genum-en,  to  take. 


m :  , 

cum-an.  c(w)6m,       c(w)om-on,  gecum-en,  to  come. 


115.  Class  V:   The  "Give"  Conjugation. 

Succession  of  Vowels :   e  (ie),  ae,  se,  e. 

The  present  stem  ends  in  a  single  consonant,  never 
a  liquid  or  nasal : 

met-an.     maet,      maeton,       gemet-en,     to  measure,  mete. 
gief-an,      geaf,       geaf-on.      gegief-en,      to  give. 

NOTE  1.  —  The  palatal  consonants,  g,  c,  and  so,  convert  a  following 
e  into  ie,  ae  into  ea,  and  ee  into  ea.  Hence  giefan  (<*gefan),  geaf 
«*gaef),  geafon  «*geefon),  gegiefen  «*gegefen).  This  change 
is  known  as  Palatalization.  See  §  8. 

NOTE  2.  —  The  infinitives  of  the  following  important  verbs  are  only 
apparently  exceptional : 

biddan,     baed,      baed-on,     gebed-en,     to  ask  for  [bid]. 
licgan,       laeg,        laeg-on,       geleg-en,       to  lie,  extend. 
aittan,       saet,        saet-on,       geset-en,       to  sit. 


Strong  J'erbs. 


79 


The  original  e  reappears  in  the  participial  stems.  It  was  changed 
to  i  in  the  present  stems  on  account  of  a  forme'r  -jan  in  the  infinitive 
(bid-jan,  etc.).  See  §  61.  To  the  same  cause  is  due  the  doubling 
of  consonants  in  the  infinitive.  All  simple  consonants  in  O.E.,  with 
the  exception  of  r,  were  doubled  after  a  short  vowel,  when  an  original 
j  followed. 

116.        Class  VI:  The  "Shake"  Conjugation. 
Succession  of  Vowels :   a,  6,  6,  a. 

scac-an,      scoc,       scoc-on,       gescac-en.      to  shake. 
far-an,         for,          for-on,          gefar-en,         to  go  [fare]. 


117.          Class  VII  :  The  "  Fall  "  Conjugation. 

a  1  a  1  ea  1  ea 

Vowel  Succession  :    _  L  5,  e,  _  \  ;   or  ea  L  eo,  eo,  ea  \  . 

x)  5    J  6 


(1)     hat-an,        het,         hSt-on,         gehat-en,     i  *°  C°"' 

\  command. 


laet-an,        let, 


let-on, 


gelaet-en,        to  let. 


(2)     feall-an.  feoll,  feoll-on,  gefeall-en,  to  fall. 

heald-an,  heold,  heold-on.  geheald-en.  to  hold. 

heaw-an,  heow,  heow-on,  geheaw-en,  to  hew. 

grov^-an,  greow,  greow-on,  gegrow^-en.  to  grow. 

NOTE  1. — This  class  consists  of  the  Reduplicating  Verbs;  that  is, 
those  verbs  that  originally  formed  their  preterits  not  by  internal 
vowel  change  (ablaut),  but  by  prefixing  to  the  present  stem  the 
initial  consonant  +  e  (cf.  Gk.  \t-\onra  and  Lat.  de-df).  Contraction 
then  took  place  between  the  syllabic  prefix  and  the  root,  the  fusion 
resulting  in  e  or  eo :  *he-hat  >  heht  >  het. 

NOTE  2.  —  A  peculiar  interest  attaches  to  hatan :  the  forms  hatte 
and  hatton  are  the  sole  remains  in  O.E.  of  the  original  Germanic 
passive.  They  are  used  both  as  presents  and  as  preterits:  hatte  = 
/  am  or  was  called,  he  is  or  was  called.  No  other  verb  in  O.E.  could 
have  a  passive  sense  without  calling  in  the  aid  of  the  verb  to  be 
(§  141)- 


80  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

Contract  Verbs. 

118.  The  few  Contract  Verbs  found  in  O.E.  do  not 
constitute  a  new  class  ;  they  fall  under  Classes  I,  II, 
V,  VI,  and  VII,  already  treated.  The  present  stem 
ended  originally  in  h.  This  was  lost  before  -an  of 
the  infinitive,  contraction  and  compensatory  lengthen- 
ing being  the  result.  The  following  are  the  most 
important  of  these  verbs  : 


Classes. 

I.    SSon  «*3ihan), 

ge3ig-en     ] 
3ah,     3ig-on,    -.      *,              }-, 
I  ge3ung-en  j 

to  thrive. 

II.    tSon  «*teohan), 

teah,    tug-on,     getog-en, 

to  draw,  go 
[tug]. 

V.    seon  «*sehwan), 

seah,    saw-on,    gesew-en, 

to  see. 

VI.    sl§an(<*Blahan),     sloh,     slog-on,    gesleeg-en,     to  slay. 

VII.    fon     «*fohan),      feng,    feng-on,    gef9ng-en,      to  seize 

[fang]. 

119.   The  Present  Indicative  of  these  verbs  runs  as 
follows  (see  rules  of  i-umlaut,  §  58): 


Sing.  1.     Ic  iSeo                 t6o              seo              slea              fo 
2.     iSu  iSihst             tlehst          siehst          sliehst          fehst 
3.     he«Ih«               tleh«          sieh«           sliehS          f6h« 

Plur.  1.     w6 

2.     ge 

•5eo«         teo*           seo^           sleaiS           f6« 

3.     hie  . 

The   other  tenses  and  moods  are  regularly  formed 
from  the  given  stems. 

120.  VOCABULARY. 


seo    sent,    property,    possession 

[agan]. 

aweg,  away  [on  weg]. 
seo  fierd,  English  army  [faran], 
se  h^re,  Danish  army  [hfrgian]. 


on    gehw^aeSre    h 911*3 ,    on   both 

sides. 
sige  niman  ( =  sige  habban) ,  to 

win  (the)  victory. 
seo  spraec,  speech,  language. 


Contract  Verbs. 


81 


to  rice  fon,  to  come  to 
Sset  wael  [Val-halla] 
se  waelsliht. 

abrecan,-  abraec. 

cweSan.  cweeS, 

geseon,  geseah. 

growan,  greow, 

ofslean.  of  slob, 

sprecan,  spraec. 

stelan,  steel. 

stqndan,  stod, 

weaxan.  weox, 


the  throne.^ 


1  slaughter, 
}  carnage. 


se  weall,  wall,  rampart. 


Saet  wilder,  wild  beast,  reindeer. 
se  wingeard,  vineyard. 

abrsecon,  abrocen,      to  break  down. 

cwsedon,  gecweden,  to  say  [quoth]. 

gesawon,  gesewen,     to  see. 

greowon,  gegrowen,  to  groin. 

ofsldgon,  ofslaegen,     to  slay. 

spraecon.  gesprecen,  to  speak. 

staelon.       gestolen,     to  steal. 

stodon.      gestQnden,  to  stand. 

weoxon,    geweaxen,  to  grow,  increase  [wax]. 


121.  EXERCISES. 

I.  1.  JSfter  fisem  soSlice  (indeed)  ealle  m^n  spreecon  ane 
(one)  spruce.       2.  Qnd  he  cwae^ :  "  Dis  is  an  folc,  ond  ealle 
hie  sprecaft  ane  spreece."      3.  On  sumuin  stowum  wmgeardas 
growa<5.       4.  He  het  5a  nsedran  ofslean.       5.  Da  ^ngle  abrae- 
con  (5one  longan  weall,  ond  sige  nomon.       6.  Qnd  tSaet  saed 
greow  ond  weox.        7.  Ic  ne  geseah  Sone  mon  se  Se  8ses 
cnapan  adesan  stael.       8.  He  waes  swySe  spedig  man  on  Sseni 
Shtum  6e  hiera  speda  on3  beo6,  Sset  is,  on  wildrum.       9.  Qnd 
Saer  weartS  (was)  micel  waelsliht  on  gehwaeSre  h^nd.      10.  Qnd 
aefter  Sissum  gefeohte,  com  Alfred  cyning  mid  his  fierde, 
Qnd  gefeaht  witS  ealne  Sone  h^re,  ond  sige  nom.       11.  Deos 
burg  hatte4^scesdun  (Ashdown).       12.  Deere  cwene  lie  laeg 
on  Seem  huse.      13.  Qnd  se  dsel  t5e  Seer  aweg  com  wees  swyfte 
lytel.       14.  Qnd  Sees  Sreotlene  dagas  ^ESered  to  rice  feng. 

II.  1.  The  men  stood  in  the  ships  and  fought  against  the 
Danes.        2.  Before  the  thanes  came,  the  king  rode  away. 

1  Literally,  to  take  to  (the)  kingdom.     Cf.  "  Have  you  anything  to 
take  to?"  (Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona,  IV,  1,  42). 

2  Brecan  belongs  properly  in  Class  V,  but  it  has  been  drawn  into 
Class  IV  possibly  through  the  influence  of  the  r  in  the  root. 

8  See  §  94,  (5).  *  See  §  117,  Note  2. 


82  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

3.  They  said  (saedon)  that  all  the  men  spoke  one  language. 

4.  They  bore  the  queen's  body  to  Wilton.       5.  Alfred  gave 
many  gifts  to  his  army  (dat.  without  to)  before  he  went 
away.       6.  These  men  are  called  earls.       7.  God  sees  all 
things.       8.  The  boy  held  the  reindeer  with  (mid)  his  hands. 
9.  About  six  months  afterwards,  Alfred  gained  the  victory, 
and  came  to  the  throne.       10.  He  said  that  there  was  very 
great  slaughter  on  both  sides. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 
WEAK  VERBS  (§  is). 

122.  The  verbs  belonging  to  the  Weak  Conjugation 
are  generally  of  more  recent  origin  than  the  strong 
verbs,   being    frequently    formed    from    the    roots    of 
strong  verbs.      The  Weak  Conjugation  was  the  grow- 
ing conjugation  in  O.E.  as  it  is  in    Mn.E.      We  in- 
stinctively put  our  newly  coined  or  borrowed  words 
into    this    conjugation    (telegraphed,    boycotted);    and 
children,  by   the   analogy  of  weak  verbs,  say  runned 
for  ran,  seed  for  saw,  teared  for  tore,  drawed  for  drew, 
and  groived  for  grew.     So,  for   example,  when   Latin 
dictdre   and   brevidre   came  into    O.E.,  they   came   as 
weak  verbs,  dihtian  and  brefian. 

The  Three  Classes  of  Weak  Verbs. 

123.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  telling,  from  the  infini- 
tive alone,  to  which  of  the  three  classes  a  weak  verb 
belongs.     Class  III  has  been  so  invaded  by  Class  II 


Weak  Verbs.  83 

that  but  three  important  verbs  remain  to  it :  habban,  to 
have;  libban,  to  live;  and  slogan,  to  say.  Distinction  is 
to  be  made,  therefore,  only  between  Classes  II  and  I. 
Class  II  contains  the  verbs  with  infinitive  in  -ian  not 
preceded  by  r.  Class  I  contains  the  remaining  weak 
verbs ;  that  is,  those  with  infinitive  in  -r-ian  and  those 

with  infinitive  in  -an  (not  -ian). 

i 

Class  I. 

124.  The   preterit   singular   and   past   participle   of 
Class  I  end  in  -ede  and  -ed,  or  -de  and  -ed  respectively. 

NOTE.  —  The  infinitives  of  this  class  ended  originally  in  -jan 
( =  -ian) .  This  accounts  for  the  prevalence  of  i-umlaut  in  these 
verbs,  and  also  for  the  large  number  of  short-voweled  stems  ending 
in  a  double  consonant  (§  115,  Note  2).  The  weak  verb  is  frequently 
the  causative  of  the  corresponding  strong  verb.  In  sucb  cases,  the 
root  of  the  weak  verb  corresponds  in  form  to  the  preterit  singular 
of  the  strong  verb :  Mn.E.  drench  (—to  make  drink),  lay  (=  to  make 
lie),  rear  (=  to  make  rise),  and  set  (=  to  make  sit),  are  the  umlauted 
forms  of  dr9iic  (preterit  singular  of  drincan),  Iseg  (preterit  singular 
of  licgan),  ras  (preterit  singular  of  risan),  and  seet  (preterit  singu- 
lar of  sittan). 

Preterit  and  Past  Participle  in  -ede  and  -ed. 

125.  Verbs  with  infinitive  in  -an  preceded  by  ri-  or 
the  double  consonants  mm,  nn,  ss,  bb,  eg  (=  gg),  add 
-ede  for  the  preterit,  and  -ed  for  the  past  participle, 
the  double  consonant  being  always  made  single  : 

ri:  neji-an.  n^r-ede,  gen^r-ed,  to  save. 

mm:  fremm-an.  fr^m-ede,  gefr^m-ed,  to  perform  [frame]. 

nn :  8§nn-an,  3§n-ede,  ge3$ n-ed,  to  extend. 

BB  :  cnyss-an,  cnys-ede,  gecnys-ed,  to  beat. 


84  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

bb :     swf  bb-an,    sw^f-ede,    geswe^-ed,    to  put  to  sleep. 
eg :     w§cg-an,      wfg-ede,     gew^g-ed,     to  agitate. 

NOTE.  —  LfCgan,  to  lay,  \&  the  only  one  of  these  verbs  that  synco- 
pates the  e:  l^cgan,  l§gde  (lede).  gel^gd  (geled),  instead  of 
legede.  gel§ged. 

Preterit  and  Past  Participle  in  -de  and  -ed. 

126.  All  the  other  verbs  belonging  to  Class  I.  add 
-de  for  the  preterit  and  -ed  for  the  past  participle. 
This  division  includes,  therefore,  all  stems  long  by 
nature  (§  10,  (3),  (a))  : 

dael-an.  dael-de.  gedeel-ed,  to  deal  out,  divide  [deel]. 

dem-an,  dem-de,  gedem-ed,  to  judge  [dom]. 

gret-an.  gret-te,  gegret-ed,  to  greet. 

hier-an,  hier-de,  gehier-ed,  to  hear. 

laed-an.  laed-de.  gelaed-ed.  to  lead. 

NOTE  1.  —  A  preceding  voiceless  consonant  (§  9,  Note)  changes  -de 
into  -te :  *gret-de  >  gret-te ;  *met-de  >  met-te ;  *iec-de  >  lec-te. 
Syncope  and  contraction  are  also  frequent  in  the  participles:  gegret-ed 
>  *gegret-d  >  gegret(t)  ;  gelaed-ed  >  gelsed(d). 

NOTE  2.  —  Buan,  to  dwell,  cultivate,  has  an  admixture  of  strong 
forms  in  the  past  participle:  buan.  bude,  gebud  (byn,  gebun).  The 
present  participle  survives  in  Mn.E.  husband  =  house-dweller. 

127-  It  includes,  also,  all  stems  long  by  position  (§  10, 
(3),  (6))  except  those  in  mm,  nn,  ss,  bb,  and  eg  (§  125) : 

sf  nd-an.  send-e.  ges^nd-ed.  to  send. 

sett-an.  s^t-te.  geset-ed.  to  set  ,  sittan]. 

aigl-an,  sigl-de.  gesigl-ed,  to  sail. 

spend-an.  spend-e.  gespend-ed.  /"  spend. 

trfdd-an,  trfd-de,  getrf d-ed,  to  tread. 

NOTE.  —  The  participles  frequently  undergo  syncope  and  contrac- 
tion :  gesended  >  gesend  ;  ges^ted  >  gese, t(t)  ;  gespf  nded  > 
gespfud;  getrfded  >  getr§d(d). 


Weak  Verbs. 


85 


Irregular  Verbs  of  Class  I. 

128.  There  are  about  twenty  verbs  belonging  to 
Class  I  that  are  irregular  in  having  no  umlaut  in 
the  preterit  and  past  participle.  The  preterit  ends  in 
-de,  the  past  participle  in  -d ;  but,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  a  preceding  voiceless  consonant  (§  9,  Note), 
-ed  is  generally  unvoiced  to  -te,  and  -d  to  -t.  The 
most  important  of  these  verbs  are  as  follows : 

bring-an.       broh-te,        gebr5h-t,       to  bring. 
geboh-t, 
gesoh-t, 
geseal-d, 
geteeh-t, 
geteal-d, 
ge3oh-t, 
ge3uh-t, 
geworh-t, 


byc-gan, 

boh-te, 

sec-an. 

soh-te. 

sen-aii. 

seal-de, 

teec-an, 

taeh-te. 

t^ll-an, 

Senc-an. 
Sync-an, 

teal-de, 

3oh-te. 
ouh-te, 

wyrc-an, 

worh-te, 

to  buy. 

to  seek. 

to  give,  sell  [hand-sel]. 

to  teach. 

to  count  [tell]. 

to  think. 

to  seem  [methinks]. 

to  work. 


NOTE.  —  Such  of  these  verbs  as  have  stems  in  c  or  g  are  frequently 
written  with  an  inserted  e :  bycgean,  secean,  teecean.  etc.  This  e 
indicates  that  c  and  g  have  palatal  value ;  that  is,  are  to  be  followed  with 
a  vanishing  y-sound.  In  such  cases,  O.E.  c  usually  passes  into  Mn.E. 
ch  -.  tjec(e)an  >  to  teach  ;  reec(e)an  >  to  reach  ;  strecc(e)an  >  to 
stretch.  Sec  (e)  an  gives  beseech  as  well  as  seek.  See  §  8. 

Conjugation  of  Class  I. 

129.  Paradigms  of  nerian,  to  save;  frfmman,  to  per- 
form; daelan,  to  divide: 

Indicative. 

PRESENT. 
Sing.  1.     Ic  ne,rie  fre,mme 

2.  M  newest  fre,mest 

3.  he  n^retS  frame's 
Plur.  1.     we 

2.  g6    \  n^riaiS  fr^mma'S 

3.  hie 


daile 
dailst 
diSKS 


86 


Etymology  and  Syntax. 


PRETERIT. 

Sing.  1.     Ic  nerede                   fremede 

dselde 

2.     *5u  neredest                fre,medest 

dseldest 

3.     he  nerede                   fre,mede 

dselde 

Plur.  1.     we  j 

2.     ge    )•  neredon             fre,medon 

dteldon 

3.     hie  J 

Subjunctive. 

Sing.  1.     Ic    )                 PRESENT. 

2.     M  !-n?rie                  fr^rnme 

d«le 

3.    he  j 

Piwr.  1.     we  j 

2.     ge    [  n^rien                fremmen 

d£elen 

3.     hie  J 

Sing.  1.     Ic   I               PRETERIT. 

2.     "Su   I  n^rede               fr^mede 

divide 

3.     he  j 

PZwr.  1.     we  1 

2.     ge    ^  n^reden             f  re.meden 

chelden 

3.     hie  j 

Imperative. 

Sing.  2.     nere                            fr^me 

dsel 

Plur.  1.     nerian                         fr^mman 

dselan 

2.     n^riai?                         fremmaS 

dselaiS 

Infinitive. 

n^rian                              fr^mman 

da;lan 

f 

Gerund. 

nerianne  (-enne)       to  fr^mmanne  (-enne) 

to  dselanne  (• 

Present  Participle. 

n^riende                        fr^minende 

dselende 

Past  Participle. 

genered                            gefr^med 

gedseled 

Weak  Verbs.  87 

NOTE.  —  The  endings  of  the  preterit  present  no  difficulties ;  in  the 
2d  and  3d  singular  present,  however,  the  student  will  observe  (a)  that 
double  consonants  in  the  stem  are  made  single :  firmest,  fr^meS 
(not  *fr§mmest,  *fr§mme3 ) ;  Sejnest,  5$ne3  ;  setest  ?  setst  .  sf teS 
(sftt);  fylst,  fylS,  from  fyllan,  to  fill;  (6)  that  syncope  is  the  rule 
in  stems  long  by  nature:  daelst  «daelest),  daelS  «deeleS); 
demst  «demeBt),  demS  «deme3);  hierst  « Merest),  MerS 
«hiereS).  Double  consonants  are  also  .made  single  in  the  impera- 
tive 2d  singular  and  in  the  past  participle.  Stems  long  by  nature 
take  no  final  -e  in  the  imperative  :  dael.  hler,  dem. 

Class  II. 

130.  The  infinitive  of  verbs  belonging  to  this  class 
ends  in  -ian  (not  -r-ian),  the  preterit  singular  in  -ode, 
the  past  participle  in  -od.     The  preterit  plural  usually 
has  -edon,  however,  instead  of  -odon: 

eard-ian  eard-ode,  geeard-od,  to  dwell  [eorSe]. 

luf-ian,  luf-ode,  geluf-od,  to  love  [lufa]. 

rics-ian,  rics-ode.  gerics-od,  to  rule  [rice], 

aealf-ian,  sealf-ode,  gesealf-od,  to  anoint  [salve]. 

segl-ian,  segl-ode,  gesegl-od,  to  sail  [segel]. 

4  NOTE.  —  These  verbs  have  no  trace  of  original  umlaut,  since  their 
-ian  was  once  -ojan.  Hence,  the  vowel  of  the  stem  was  shielded  from 
the  influence  of  the  j  (=  i)  by  the  interposition  of  o. 

Conjugation  of  Class  II. 

131.  Paradigm  of  lufian,  to  love  : 

Indicative.  Subjunctive. 

PRESENT.  PRESENT. 

Sing.  1.     Ic  lufie  Sing.  1.     Ic   ] 

2.  Sulufast  2.     «u  [lufie 

3.  helufaiS  3.     he  J 


Plur.  1.     we 

2.  g6 

3.  hie  J 


Plur.  1.     we  1 

lufia«  2.     gg   ilufien 

3.    hie  J 


88 


Etymology  and  Syntax. 


PRETERIT. 

Sing.  1.  Ic  lufode 

2.  M  lufodest 

3.  he  lufode 
Plur.  1.  we 

2.  ge 

3.  hie  J 


lufedon  (-odon) 


PRETERIT. 

Sing.  1.  Ic   1 

2.  «u  [lufode 

3.  he  J 
Plur.  1.  we  1 

2.  ge    j-lufeden  (-oden) 

3.  hie  J 


Imperative. 
Sing.  2.     lufa 
Plur.  1.     lufian 
2.     lufiatf 


Infinitive, 
lufian 

Gerund. 

to  lufianne  (-enne) 


Present  Participle. 

lufiende 

Past  Participle. 

gelufod 


NOTE.  1.  —  The  -ie  (-ien)  occurring  in  the  present  must  be  pro- 
nounced as  a  dissyllable.  The  y-sound  thus  interposed  between  the 
i  and  e  is  frequently  indicated  by  the  letter  g:  luh'e,  or  lufige  ; 
lufien,  or  lufigen.  So  also  for  ia :  lufiaS,  or  lufigaS ;  lufian,  or 
lufig(e)an. 

NOTE  2.  —  In  the  preterit  singular,  -ade,  -ude,  and  -ede  are  not 
infrequent  for  -ode. 

Class  III. 

132.  The  few  verbs  belonging  here  show  a  blending 
of  Classes  I  and  II.  Like  certain  verbs  of  Class  I 
(§  128),  the  preterit  and  past  participle  are  formed 
by  adding  -de  and  -d;  like  Class  II,  the  2d  and  3d 
present  indicative  singular  end  in  -ast  and  -a8,  the 
imperative  2d  singular  in  -a: 

habb-an,       haef-de  geheef-d,  to  have. 

libb-an.          lif-de  gelif-d,  to  live. 

secg-an          saed-e    saeg-de  .      gesagd  (geaaeg-d),      to  say. 


Weak  Verbs. 


89 


133. 

slogan. 
Sing. 

Plur. 


Conjugation  of  Class  III. 

Paradigms  of  habban,  to  have ;  libban,  to  live  ; 
to  say. 


Indicative. 
PRESENT. 

libbe 
lifast 


1.  Ic  haebbe 

2.  Su  haefst  (hafast) 

3.  he  haef  S  (hafaS)  lifaS 

1.  we  ] 

2.  ge    UabbaS  libbaS 

3.  hie 


s^cge 

saegst  (sagast) 


PRETERIT. 

Sing.  1.     Ic  haefde                              lifde 
2.    «u  haefdest                          lifdest 

saede 
siedest 

3.     he  haefde                             lifde 

sasde 

Plur.  1.     w6  ' 

2.     ge    j-  haef  don                       lifdon 
3.    hie  J           • 

sagdon 

Subjunctive. 

Sing.  1.     Ic 
2.    «u 
3.    he  J 

PRESENT. 
i-  haebbe                         libbe 

s^cge 

Plur.  1.     we 

2.     ge    ;  hsebbeu                       libben 
3.     hie  J 
Sing.  1.     Ic   1                      PRETERIT. 
2.     «u  [  haefde                          lifde 

s^cgen 
saade 

3.     he 

Plur.  1.     we 

2.     ge 
3.     hie 

-  haefden                       lifden 

saeden 

Imperative. 

Sing.  2.     hafa                                     Ufa 

saga 

Plur.  1.     habban                                libban 
2.     habbaS                                libbaft 

s^cgan 
s^cga^S 

90  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

Infinitive. 

habban  libban  slogan 

Gerund. 

to  habbanne  (-enne)         to  libbanne  (-enne)          t5  se,cganne  (-enne) 

Present  Participle. 

hsebbende  libbende  se,cgende 


Past  Participle. 

gehsefd  gelifd 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

• 
REMAINING   VERBS  ;    VERB-PHRASES   WITH    habban, 

beon,   AND  weorSaii. 
Anomalous  Verbs.     (See  §  19.) 
134.    These  are: 


beon  (wesan), 

wees, 

weeron, 

t 

to  be. 

willan, 

wolde, 

woldon, 

> 

to  will,  intend. 

don, 

dyde, 

dydon, 

gedon, 

to  do,  cause. 

gan, 

code, 

eodon. 

gegan, 

to  go. 

NOTE. — In  the  original  Indo-Germanic  language,  the  first  person 
of  the  present  indicative  singular  ended  in  (1)  6  or  (2)  mi.  Cf.  Gk. 
\i5-w,  el-pl,  Lat.  am-o,  su-m.  The  Strong  and  Weak  Conjugations  of 
O.E.  are  survivals  of  the  o-class.  The  four  Anomalous  Verbs  men- 
tioned above  are  the  sole  remains  in  O.E.  of  the  mi- class.  Note  the 
surviving  m  in  com  7  am,  and  dom  /  do  (Northumbrian  form). 
These  mi-verbs  are  sometimes  called  non-Thematic  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  Thematic  or  6-verbs. 


Remaining  Verbs.  91 

Conjugation  of  Anomalous  Verbs. 

135.   Only  the   present   indicative    and   subjunctive 

are  at  all  irregular: 

Indicative. 

PRESENT. 
Sing.  1.    Ic  eom  (beom)  wille  do  ga 

2.  M  eart  (bist)  wilt  d6st  gjest 

3.  he  is  (bi«)  wille  de«  gse« 
Plur.  1.     we  "I 

2.  ge    Isind(on)  willaft  d6«  ga« 

3.  hiej 

Subjunctive. 
PRESENT. 

wille  d6  ga 


>  slen  willen  don  gan 

3.    hie  ' 

NOTE.  —  The  preterit  subjunctive  of  beon  is  formed,  of  course,  not 
from  wees,  but  from  w«ron.  See  §  103,  (3). 

Preterit-Present  Verbs.     (See  §  19.) 

136.  These  verbs  are  called  Preterit-Present  because 
the  present  tense  (indicative  and  subjunctive)  of  each 
of  them  is,  in  form,  a  strong  preterit,  the  old  present 
having  been  displaced  by  the  new.  They  all  have 
weak  preterits.  Most  of  the  Mn.E.  Auxiliary  Verbs 
belong  to  this  class. 

{wiste   1 
\    wiston,      gewiten,  to  know  [to  wit,  wot]. 

wisse,  J 

agan,         ante,         ahton,        agen(adj.),       to  possess  [owe]. 

I  gecunnen,  ]      to  fcnoto,  can  [uncouth, 
cunnan,     cuae,        cuoon, 

L  cuo  (adj.),  J         cunning]. 


92 


Etymology  and  Syntax. 


durran,      dorste,  dorston. 

sculan,      sceolde,  sceoldon, 

f  meahte.  meahton. 

\  mihte.  mihton. 

motan,      moste,  moston, 


magan. 


to  dare, 
shall. 

to  be  able,  may. 
may,  must. 


NOTE.  —  The  change  in  meaning  from  preterit  to  present,  with 
retention  of  the  preterit  form,  is  not  uncommon  in  other  languages. 
Several  examples  are  found  in  Latin  and  Greek  (cf.  novi  and  oUa, 
I  know}.  Mn.E.  has  gone  further  still :  ante  and  moste.  which  had 
already  suffered  the  loss  of  their  old  preterits  (ah,  mot),  have  been 
forced  back  again  into  the  present  (ought,  must).  Having  exhausted, 
therefore,  the  only  means  of  preterit  formation  known  to  Germanic, 
the  strong  and  the  weak,  it  is  not  likely  that  either  ought  or  must  will 
ever  develop  distinct  preterit  forms. 


Conjugation  of  Preterit-Present  Verbs. 

137.    The  irregularities  occur  in  the  present  indicative 
and  subjunctive : 


Sing.  1.  Ic  wat 

2.  'Su  wast 

3.  he  wat 
Plur.  1.  we  1 


Indicative. 
,        PRESENT. 

ah  con  (can)  dear  sceal  mseg  mot 
ahst  cgnst  (canst)  dearst  scealt  meaht  most 
ah  CQU  (can)  dear  sceal  mseg  mot 


2.  ge    [  witon  agon   cunnon 

3.  hie  ) 


durron  sculon  magon  moton 


Sing.  1.  Ic 
2.  «u 


Subjunctive. 

PRESENT. 
wite    age    cunne    durre    scule(scyle)       msege    mote 


3.  he 
Plur.  1.  we  1 

2.  ge   I  witen  agen  cunnen  durren  sculen(scylen)  maegen  moten 

3.  hie  J 

NOTE  1.  —  Willan    and    sculan    do    not    often    connote    simple 
futurity  in  Early  West  Saxon,  yet  they  were  fast  drifting  that  way. 


Verb-Phrases.  93 

The  Mn.E.  use  of  shall  only  with  the  1st  person  and  will  only  with 
the  2tl  and  3d,  to  express  simple  futurity,  was  wholly  unknown  even 
in  Shakespeare's  day.  The  elaborate  distinctions  drawn  between  these 
words  by  modern  grammarians  are  not  only  cumbersome  and  foreign 
to  the  genius  of  English,  but  equally  lacking  in  psychological  basis. 

NOTE  2.  —  Sculan  originally  implied  the  idea  of  (1)  duty,  or  com- 
pulsion (  —  ought  to,  or  musty,  and  this  conception  lurks  with  more  or 
less  prominence  in  almost  every  function  of  sculan  in  O.K.  :  Dryhten 
bebead  Moyse  hu  he  sceolde  beran  Sa  earce,  The  Lord  in- 
structed Moses  how  he  ought  to  bear  the  ark ;  -3Ulc  mann  sceal  be 
his  andgietes  maeSe  .  .  .  sprecan  Saet  he  spricS,  and  don  Saet 
Saet  he  d§3,  Every  man  must,  according  to  the  measure  of  his  intel- 
ligence, speak  what  he  speaks,  and  do  what  he  does.  Its  next  most 
frequent  use  is  to  express  (2)  custom,  the  transition  from  the  obliga- 
tory to  the  customary  being  an  easy  one :  Se  byrdesta  sceall  gyldan 
flftyne  mearSes  fell,  The  man  of  highest  rank  pays  fifteen  marten 
skins. 

NOTE  3.  —  Willan  expressed  originally  (1)  pure  volition,  and  this 
is  its  most  frequent  use  in  O.E.  It  may  occur  without  the  infinitive  : 
Nylle  ic  Saes  synfullan  deaS,  ac  ic  wille  Saet  he  gecyrre  and 
lybbe,  /  do  not  desire  the  sinner's  death,  but  I  desire  that  he  return 
and  live.  The  wish  being  father  to  the  intention,  willan  soon  came 
to  express  (2) purpose:  He  saede  Saet  he  at  sumum  cirre  wolde  fan- 
dian  hu  longe  Saet  land  norSryhte  laege,  He  said  that  he  intended, 
at  some  time,  to  investigate  how  far  that  land  extended  northward. 


Verb-Phrases  with  habban,  beon  (wesan),  and  weor&an. 

Verb-Phrases  in  the  Active  Voice. 

138.  The  present  and  preterit  of  habban,  combined 
with  a  past  participle,  are  used  in  O.E.,  as  in  Mn.E., 
to  form  the  present  perfect  and  past  perfect  tenses : 

PRESENT  PERFECT.  PAST  PERFECT. 

Sing.  1.   Ic  hsebbe  gedrifen  Sing.  1.   Ic  haefde  gedrifen 

2.  ftu  hsefst  gedrifen  2.    ftu  haefdest  gedrifen 

3.  he  haefiS  gedrifen  3.  he  hsefde  gedrifen 


94  Etymology  and  Syntax. 

PRESENT  PERFECT.  PAST  PERFECT. 

Plur.  1.    w6  1  Plur.  1.   we 


2.  ge    \  habbaS  gedrifen  2.  £e 

3.  hiej  3.   hie 


hsef  don  gedrifen 


The  past  participle  is  not  usually  inflected  to  agree 
with  the  direct  object  :  NorSymbre  qnd  Eastengle  haefdon 
JElfrede  cyninge  aSas  geseald  (not  gesealde,  §  82),  The 
Northumbrians  and  East  Anglians  had  given  king 
Alfred  oaths;  qnd  haefdon  miclne  dasl  Sara  horsa  freten 
(not  fretenne),  and  (they)  had  devoured  a  large  part 
of  the  horses. 

NOTE.  — Many  sentences  might  be  quoted  in  which  the  participle 
does  agree  with  the  direct  object,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  clear  line 
of  demarcation  between  them  and  the  sentences  just  cited.  Originally, 
the  participle  expressed  a  resultant  state,  and  belonged  in  sense  more 
to  the  object  than  to  habban  ;  but  in  Early  West  Saxon  habban 
had  already,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  become  a  pure  auxiliary  when 
used  with  the  past  participle.  This  is  conclusively  proved  by  the  use 
of  habban  with  intransitive  verbs.  In  such  a  clause,  therefore,  as  08 
Saet  hie  nine  ofslaegenne  haefdon,  there  is  no  occasion  to  translate 
until  they  had  him  slain  (=  resultant  state);  the  agreement  here  is 
more  probably  due  to  the  proximity  of  ofslaegenne  to  bine.  So 
also  ac  hi  haefdon  ba  hiera  stemn  gesetenne,  but  they  had  already 
served  out  (sat  out)  their  military  term. 

139.  If  the  verb  is  intransitive,  and  denotes  a  change 
of  condition,  a  departure  or  arrival,  beon  (wesan)  usu- 
ally replaces  habban.  The  past  participle,  in  such 
cases,  partakes  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective,  and  gen- 
erally agrees  with  the  subject :  Mine  welan  be  ic  10 
haefde  syndon  ealle  gewitene  9nd  gedrorene,  My  posses- 
sions which  I  once  had  are  all  departed  and  fallen  away ; 
waeron  ba  m§n  uppe  on  Iqnde  of  agane,  the  men  had  gone 
up  ashore;  9nd  ba  obre  waeron  hungre  acwolen,  and  the 


Verb-Phrases.  95 

others  had  perished  of  hunger ;  9nd  eac  se  micla  hfre 
waes  pa.  peer  to  cumen.  and  also  the  large  army  had  then 
arrived  there. 

140.  A  progressive  present  and  preterit  (not  always, 
however,  with  distinctively  progressive  meanings)  are 
formed    by  combining   a   present   participle    with   the 
present  and  preterit  of  beon  (wesan).     The  participle 
remains  uninflected :   9nd  hie  alle  on  Sone  cyning  weerun 
feohtende,  and  they  all  were  fighting  against  the  king; 
Symle  he  biS  lociende,   ne   sleepS   he   neefre,  He  is  always 
looking,  nor  does  He  ever  sleep. 

NOTE. — In  most  sentences  of  this  sort,  the  subject  is  masculine 
(singular  or  plural) ;  hence  no  inf erence  can  be  made  as  to  agreement, 
since  -e  is  the  participial  ending  for  both  numbers  of  the  nominative 
masculine  (§  82).  By  analogy,  therefore,  the  other  genders  usually 
conform  in  inflection  to  the  masculine  :  weeron  ba  ealle  ba  deoflu 
clypigende  anre  stefne,  then  were  all  the  devils  crying  with  one  voice. 

Verb-Phrases  in  the  Passive  Voice. 

141.  Passive  constructions  are  formed  by  combining 
beon  (wesan)  or  weorSan  with  a  past  participle.     The 
participle  agrees  regularly  with  the  subject :  hie  weeron 
benumene   aegSer  ge  baes  ceapes  ge  baes  comes,    they  were 
deprived  both  of  the  cattle  and  the  corn;  hi  beoS  abl^nde 
mid  Seem  blostrum  heora  scylda,  they  are  blinded  with  the 
darkness  of  their  sins;    and  se  weelhreowa  Domicianus  on 
3am  ylcan  geare  wearS  acweald,  and  the  murderous  Domi- 
tian  was  killed  in  the  same  year;  $nd  JBbelwulf  aldorm9n 
wearS  ofslaegen,  and  j&thelwulf,  alderman,  was  slain. 

NOTE  1.  — To  express  agency,  Mn.E.  employs  by,  rarely  of;  M.E. 
of,  rarely  by;  O.E.  frQm  (fram*),  rarely  of:  Se  8e  Godes  bebodu 


96 


Etymology  and  Syntax. 


ne  gecnaewS,  ne  biS  he  oncnawen  frqm  Gode,  He  who  does  not 
recognize  God's  commands,  will  not  be  recognized  by  God;  Betwux 
psem  wearS  ofslagen  Bad-wine  .  .  .  fram  Brytta  cyninge,  Mean- 
while, Edwin  was  slain  by  the  king  of  the  Britons. 

NOTE  2.  —  O.E.  had  no  progressive  forms  for  the  passive,  and 
could  not,  therefore,  distinguish  between  He  is  being  wounded  and 
He  is  wounded.  It  was  not  until  more  than  a  hundred  years  after 
Shakespeare's  death  that  being  assumed  this  function.  WeorSan, 
which  originally  denoted  a  passage  from  one  state  to  another,  was 
ultimately  driven  out  by  beon  (wesan),  and  survives  now  only  in 
Woe  worth  (=  be  to). 


142. 


VOCABULARY. 


Sa  Beormas,  Permians. 

Sa  Deniscan,  the  Danish  (men), 

Danes. 

3a  Finnas,  Fins. 
Saet  ge wald,  control  [wealdan] . 
seo  see.  sea. 


seo  sclr,  shire,  district. 
seo  weelstow,  battle-field. 
agan    wselstowe     gewald,     to 

maintain    possession     of    the 

battle-field. 
se  wealdend,  ruler,  wielder. 


geflieman,  gefliemde,  gefliemed,  to  put  to  flight. 

gestaSelian,  gestaSelode,  gestaSelod.  to  establish,  restore. 

gewissian,  gewissode.  gewissod,  to  guide,  direct. 

wician,  wicode,  gewicod,  to  dwell  [wic  =  vi 


143. 


EXERCISES. 


I.  1.  Qnd  Sser  waes  micel  wsel  geslsegen  on  geliwaefre 
hond,  ond  ^Epelwulf  ealdormQn  wear))  of sleegen ;  ond  fa 
Deniscan  ahton  waelstowe  gewald.  2.  Ond  ]>ses  ymb  anne 
mona))  gefeaht  Alfred  cyning  wi}>  ealne  pone  h^re,  ond  hine 
gefliemde.  3.  He  seede  J>eah  J>set  feet  land  sie  swipe  lang 
nor))  )>onan.  4.  pa  Beormas  hsef don  swife  wel  gebud  (§  126, 
Note  2)  hiera  land.  5.  Ohth^re  sSde  pset  seo  sclr  hatte 
(§  117,  Note  2)  Helgoland,  ]>e  he  on  (§  94,  (5))  bude.  6.  pa 
Finnas  wicedon  be  feere  sse.  7.  Dryhten,  selmihtiga  (§  78, 
Note)  God,  Wyrhta  and  Wealdend  ealra  gesceafta,  ic  bidde 


Verb-Phrases.  97 

3e  for  ftmre  miclan  mildheortnesse  Seet  <5u  me  gewissie  to 
<5mum  willan ;  and  gestaSela  mm  mod  to  Slnum  willan  and 
to  mmre  sawle  Searfe.  8.  pa  sceolde  he  Sger  bidan  ryht- 
norpanwindes,  for  ftem  }>8et  land  beag  peer  siiSryhte,  o}>)>e  seo 
see  in  on  ftset  land,  he  nysse  hwaefter.  9.  For  Sy,  me  Sync<5 
b^tre,  gif  eow  swa  SyncS,  3set  we  eac  3as  bee  on  Seet  geSeode 
we,nden  5e  we  ealle  gecnawan  maegen. 

II.  1.  When  the  king  heard  that,  he  went  (=  then  went 
he)  westward  with  his  army  to  Ashdown.  2.  Lovest  thou 
me  more  than  these  ?  3.  The  men  said  that  the  shire  which 
they  lived  in  was  called  Halgoland.  4.  All  things  were 
made  (wyrcan)  by  God.  5.  They  were  fighting  for  two  days 
with  (=  against)  the  Danes.  6.  King  Alfred  fought  with 
the  Danes,  and  gained  the  victory ;  but  the  Danes  retained 
possession  of  the  battle-field.  7.  These  men  dwelt  in  Eng- 
land before  they  came  hither.  8.  I  have  not  seen  the  book 
of  (ymbe)  which  you  speak  (sprecan). 


PART   III. 


SELECTIONS  FOR  READING. 

PROSE. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

I.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle. 

THIS  famous  work,  a  series  of  progressive  annals  by 
unknown  hands,  embraces  a  period  extending  from  Caesar's 
invasion  of  England  to  1154.  It  is  not  known  when  or 
where  these  annals  began  to  be  recorded  in  English. 

"  The  annals  from  the  year  866  —  that  of  Ethelred's 
ascent  of  the  throne  —  to  the  year  887  seem  to  be  the 
work  of  one  mind.  Not  a  single  year  is  passed  over,  and 
to  several  is  granted  considerable  space,  especially  to  the 
years  871,  878,  and  885.  The  whole  has  gained  a  certain 
roundness  and  fulness,  because  the  events  —  nearly  all  of 
them  episodes  in  the  ever-recurring  conflict  with  the  Danes 
—  are  taken  in  their  connection,  and  the  thread  dropped 
in  one  year  is  resumed  in  the  next.  Not  only  is  the 
style  in  itself  concise;  it  has  a  sort  of  nervous  severity 
and  pithy  rigor.  The  construction  is  often  antiquated,  and 
suggests  at  times  the  freedom  of  poetry ;  though  this  purely 
historical  prose  is  far  removed  from  poetry  in  profusion  of 
language."  (Ten  Brink,  Early  Eng.  Lit.,  I.) 

II.  The  Translations  of  Alfred. 

Alfred's  reign  (871-901)  may  be  divided  into  four  periods. 
The  first,  the  period  of  Danish  invasion,  extends  from  871  to 

98 


The  Battle  of  Ashdown.  99 

881 ;  the  second,  the  period  of  comparative  quiet,  from  881 
to  893;  the  third,  the  period  of  renewed  strife  (beginning 
with  the  incursions  of  Hasting),  from  893  to  897;  the 
fourth,  the  period  of  peace,  from  897  to  901.  His  liter- 
ary work  probably  falls  in  the  second  period.* 

The  works  translated  by  Alfred  from  Latin  into  the 
vernacular  were  (1)  Consolation  of  Philosophy  (De  Conso- 
latione  Philosophiae)  by  Boethius  (475-525),  (2)  Compen- 
dious History  of  the  World  (Historiarum  Libri  VII)  by 
Orosius  (c.  418),  (3)  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  English 
(Historia  Ecclesiastica  Gentis  Anglorum)  by  Bede  (672-735), 
and  (4)  Pastoral  Care  (De  Cura  Pastorali)  by  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great  (540-604). 

The  chronological  sequence  of  these  works  is  wholly  unknown. 
That  given  is  supported  by  Turner,  Arend,  Morley,  Grein,  and 
Pauli.  Wiilker  argues  for  an  exact  reversal  of  this  order.  Accord- 
ing to  Ten  Brink,  the  order  was  more  probably  (1)  Orosius, 
(2)  Bede,  (3)  Boethius,  and  (4)  Pastoral  Care.  The  most  recent 
contribution  to  the  subject  is  from  Wiilfing,  who  contends  for 
(1)  Bede,  (2)  Orosius,  (3)  Pastoral  Care,  and  (4)  Boethius. 


I.     THE  BATTLE  OF  ASHDOWN. 

[From  the  Chronicle,  Parker  MS.  The  event  and  date  are  significant. 
The  Danes  had  for  the  first  time  invaded  Wessex.  Alfred's  older  brother, 
Ethelred,  was  king ;  but  to  Alfred  belongs  the  glory  of  the  victory  at  Ash- 
down  (Berkshire).  Asser  (Life  of  Alfred)  tells  us  that  for  a  long  time 
Ethelred  remained  praying  in  his  tent,  while  Alfred  ahd  his  followers  went 
forth  "  like  a  wild  boar  against  the  hounds."] 

1  871.    Her  cuom1  se  he_re  to  Eeadingum  on  Westseaxe, 

2  §nd  baes  ymb  iii  niht  ridon  ii  eorlas  up.     pa  gemette  hie 

*  There  is  something  inexpressibly  touching  in  this  clause  from  the 
great  king's  pen :  gif  we  "5a  stilnesse  habbaft.  He  is  speaking  of  how 
much  he  hopes  to  do,  by  his  translations,  for  the  enlightenment  of  his 
people. 


100  Selections  for  Reading. 


aldorman2  on  Englafelda,  ond  him  fair  wif  ge- 

2  feaht,  ond  sige  nam.     J)ses  ymb  iiii  niht  ^E)»ered  cyning 

3  ond  Alfred  his  brofur3  feer  micle  fierd  to  Readingum 

4  gelaeddon,  ond  wif  fone  h§re   gefuhton  ;    ond   f  ter  wees 

5  micel  wsel  geslsegen  on  gehwaefre  hond,  ond  JEfelwulf 
e  aldormon  wear))  of  sleegen  ;   Qnd  fa  D^niscan  ahton  wsel- 
7  stowe  gewald. 

s      Qnd  faes  ymb   iiii   niht   gefeaht  Jeered  cyning  ond 
9  Alfred  his  bropur  wi)>  alne  4  fone  h^re  on  ^Escesdune. 

10  Qnd   hie  wserun  5  on   tweem   gefylcum  :    on   6J>rum  waes 

11  Bachs^cg   ond  Halfde_ne   fa   hsepnan    cyningas,   ond    on 

12  6)>rum   wgeron   fa   eorlas.      Qnd    fa    gefeaht    se    cyning 

13  ^Efered  wif  fara  cyninga  getruman,  ond  feer  wearf   se 

14  cyning  Bags^cg   of  sleegen  ;   ^nd  Alfred   his   brof  ur  wif 

15  fara  eorla  getruman,  ond  feer  wearf  Sidroc  eorl  ofsleegen 

16  se  alda,6  ond  Sidroc  eorl  se  gioncga,7  ond  Osbearn  eorl, 
IT  ond  Freena  eorl,  ond  Hareld  eorl  ;  ond  fa  h^rgas  8  begen 
is  gefliemde,  ond  fela  fusenda  ofsleegenra,  ond  onfeohtende 

19  wseron  of  niht. 

20  Qnd  fses  ymb  xiiii  niht  gefeaht  ^Efered  cyning  Qnd 

21  Alfred  his  broSur  wif  fone  h^re  set  Basengum,  §nd  fser 

22  fa  D^niscan  sige  namon. 

23  Qnd  faes  ymb  ii  monaf  gefeaht  ^Efered  cyning  §nd 

24  Alfred  his  brofur  wif  fone  he_re  83t  M^retune,  §nd  hie 

25  waerun  on  tuaem  9  gefylcium,  Qnd  hie  butu  gefliemdon,  ond 

26  iQnge  on  dasg  sige  ahton  ;  ond  f  ser  wearf  micel  waelsliht 

27  on  gehwaef  ere  hond  ;   Qnd  fa  D^niscan  ahton  waelstowe 

8.  gefeaht.  Notice  that  the  singular  is  used.  This  is  the  more 
common  construction  in  O.E.  when  a  compound  subject,  composed 
of  singular  members,  follows  its  predicate.  Cf.  For  thine  is  the 
kingdom,  and  the  power,  and  the  glory.  See  also  p.  107,  note  on 
•wees. 

18.  9nd  fela  Jjuseuda  ofslaegenra,  and  there  were  many  thou- 
sands of  slain  (§  91). 


The  Battle  of  Ashdown.  101 

1  gewald ;    ond   pair   wear))    Heahmund    bisceop    ofslaegen, 

2  gnd  fela  godra  monna.     Qnd  aefter  pissum  gefeohte  cuom J 

3  micel  surnorlida. 

4  Qnd  pses  ofer  Eastron  gefor  ^Efered  cyning;   ond  he 

5  rlcsode  v  gear ;  ond  his  lie  lip  set  Wlnburnan. 

e  pa  feng  Alfred  ^Epelwulfing  his  bropur  to  Wesseaxna 
7  rice.  Qnd  pses  ymb  anne  monap  gefeaht  Alfred  cyning 
s  wip  alne  *  pone  here  ly tie  werede 10  set  Wiltune,  ond  hine 
9  longe  on  dseg  gefliemde,  ond  fa  D^niscan  ahton  waelstowe 

10  gewald. 

11  Qnd  fses  geares  wurdon  viiii  folcgefeoht  gefohten  wij> 

12  fone  h^re  on  \>y  cynerice  be  sufan  T^mese,  butan  fam  fe 

13  him  Alfred  fees  cyninges  brofur  ond  anlipig  aldormon2  ond 
u  cyninges  )>egnas  oft  rade  onridon  }>e  mon  na  ne  rimde ; 
is  ond  fees  geares  waerun5ofslsegene  viiii  eorlas  ond  an  cyning. 
16  Qnd  )>y  geare  namon  Westseaxe  fri)>  wip  pone  he_re. 

CONSULT  GLOSSARY  AND  PARADIGMS  UNDER  FORMS  GIVEN  BELOW. 

No  note  is  made  of  such  variants  as  y  (y)  or  i  (I)  for  ie  (ie).  See 
Glossary  under  ie  (ie) ;  occurrences,  also,  of  and  for  gnd,  land  for 
Ignd,  are  found  on  almost  every  page  of  Early  West  Saxon.  Such 
words  should  be  sought  for  under  the  more  common  forms,  gnd,  Ignd. 

1  =  cwom.  *  —  ealne.  8  =  hejas. 

2  =  ealdorrnqn.  5  =  wjeron.  9  =  twiem. 

3  =  bro)*>r.  6  =  ealda.  10  =  werode. 

7  =  geonga. 

^  II.     A  PEAYER   OF  KING  ALFRED. 

[With  this  characteristic  prayer,  Alfred  concludes  his  translation  of 
Boethius's  Consolation  of  Philosophy.  Unfortunately,  the  only  extant 
MS.  (Bodleian  180)  is  Late  West  Saxon.  I  follow,  therefore,  Prof.  A.  S. 
Cook's  normalization  on  an  Early  West  Saxon  basis.  See  Cook's  First 
Book  in  Old  English,  p.  163.] 

12.  butan  )jam  J>e,  etc.,  besides  which,  Alfred  .  .  .  made  raids 
against  them  (him),  which  were  not  counted.  See  §  70,  Note. 


102  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  Dryhten,  selmihtiga  God,  Wyrhta  and  Wealdend  ealra 

2  gesceafta,  ic  bidde  t5e  for  Smre  miclan  mildheortnesse, 

3  and  for  &ere  halgan  rode  tacne,  and  for  Sanctae  Marian 

4  maegShade,  and  for  Sancti  Michaeles  gehiersumnesse,  and 

5  for  ealra  ftlnra  halgena  lufan  and  hiera  earnungum,  ftaet 
e  Su  me  gewissie  b^t  ftonne  ic  aworhte  to  Se ;  and  gewissa 
7  me  to  3muni  willan,  and  to  mmre  sawle  Searfe,  b^t  Sonne 
s  ic  self  cunne ;  and  gestaSela  mm  mod  to  Smum  willan  and 
9  to  minre  sawle  Searfe ;  and  gestranga  me  wiS  Saes  deofles 

10  costnungum ;   and  afierr  fram  me"  Sa  fulan  galnesse  and 

11  Sice  unrihtwisnesse ;  and  gescield  me  wiS  mmum  wi<5er- 

12  winnum,  gesewenllcum  and  ungesewenlicum ;  and  tsec  me 
is  5lnne  willan  to  wyrceanne ;  Sset  ic  masge  Se  inweardlice 

14  lufian  toforan  eallum  ftingum,  mid  clsenum  geSance  and 

15  mid  clsenum  lichaman.    For  'Son  8e  Su  eart  mm  Scieppend, 

16  and  mm  Aliesend,  mm  Fultum,  min  Frofor,  mm  Treow- 

17  nes,  and  mm  Tohopa.      Sie  8e  lof  and  wuldor  nu  and 
is  a  a  a,  to  worulde  butan  seghwilcum  §nde.     Amen. 


III.  THE  VOYAGES  OF  OHTHEKE  AND 
WULFSTAN. 

[Lauderdale  and  Cottonian  MSS.  These  voyages  are  an  original  inser- 
tion by  Alfred  into  his  translation  of  Orosius's  Compendious  History  of 
the  World. 

"They  consist,"  says  Ten  Brink,  "of  a  complete  description  of  all  the 
countries  in  which  the  Teutonic  tongue  prevailed  at  Alfred's  time,  and  a 
full  narrative  of  the  travels  of  two  voyagers,  which  the  king  wrote  down 
from  their  own  lips.  One  of  these,  a  Norwegian  named  Ohthere,  had  quite 

3-4.  Marian  .  .  .  Michaeles.  O.E.  is  inconsistent  in  the  treat- 
ment of  foreign  names.  They  are  sometimes  naturalized,  and  some- 
times retain  in  part  their  original  inflections.  Marian,  an  original 
accusative,  is  here  used  as  a  genitive  ;  while  Michaeles  has  the  O.E. 
genitive  ending. 

17.   Sie  85  lof.    See  §  105,  1. 


The  Voyages  of  Ohthere  and  Wulfstan.  103 

circumnavigated  the  coast  of  Scandinavia  in  his  travels,  and  had  even 
penetrated  to  the  White  Sea ;  the  other,  named  Wulfstan,  had  sailed  from 
Schleswig  to  Frische  Haff .  The  geographical  and  ethnographical  details 
of  both  accounts  are  exceedingly  interesting,  and  their  style  is  attractive, 
clear,  and  concrete." 

Ohthere  made  two  voyages.  Sailing  first  northward  along  the  western 
coast  of  Norway,  he  rounded  the  North  Cape,  passed  into  the  White  Sea, 
and  entered  the  Dwina  River  (an  micel  ea).  On  his  second  voyage  he 
sailed  southward  along  the  western  coast  of  Norway,  entered  the  Skager 
Rack  (widase),  passed  through  the  Cattegat,  and  anchored  at  the  Danish 
port  of  Haddeby  (eet  Heejmm),  modern  Schleswig. 

Wulfstan  sailed  only  in  the  Baltic  Sea.  His  voyage  of  seven  days  from 
Schleswig  brought  him  to  Drauseu  (Truso)  on  the  shore  of  the  Drau- 
sensea.] 

Ohthere's  First  Voyage. 

'  'i      Ohthere  saide  his  hlaforde,  ^Elfrede  cyninge,  baet  he 

2  ealra  XorSmonna  norbmest  bude.     He  cwae<5  baet  he  bude 

3  on  bairn  lande  norbweardum  wij>  ba  Westsee.      He  saede 

4  beah  baet  baet  land  sle  swibe  lang  norj>  bonan ;  ac  hit  is 

5  eal  weste,  buton  on  feawum  stowum  styccemielum  wiciafc 
e  Finnas,  on  huntoSe  on  wintra,  ond  on  sumera  on  fiscabe 
T  be  bsere  see.      He  ssede  bset  he  aet  sumum   cirre  wolde 
s  fandian  hu  l^nge  baet  land  norbryhte  l»ge,  obbe  hwaeSer 
9  senig  mon  be  nor5an   bgem  westenne   bude.      pa  for  he 

10  norbryhte  be  bgem  lande :   let  him  ealne  weg  bset  weste 

11  land  on  Saet  stgorbord,  Qnd  ba  widsse  on  ftset  bascbord  brie 

12  dagas.      pa  wees  he  swa  feor  nor})  swa  ba  hwaelhuntan 

13  nrrest  farab.     pa  for  he  ba  giet  norbryhte  swa  feor  swa 

14  he  meahte  on  bsem  obrum  brim  dagum  gesiglan.     pa  beag 
is  bast  land  beer  eastryhte,  obbe  seo  see  in  on  tSaet  l^nd,  he 

16  nysse  hwasSer,  buton  he  wisse  Sast  he  tSeer  bad  westan- 

17  windes  Qnd  hwon  norban,  ond  siglde  8a  east  be  lande 
is  swa   swa   he   meahte    on    feower   dagum    gesiglan.      pa 

19  sceolde   he  tSser   bidan   ryhtnorbanwindes,  for  Seem   baet 

20  land  beag  Jner  subryhte,  obbe  seo  sae  in  on  t5aet  land,  he 

21  nysse  hwaeber.      pa  siglde  he  bonan  sut5ryhte  be  lande 


104  Selections  for  Heading. 

1  swa  swa  he  me^hte1  on  flf  dagum  gesiglan.     Da  laeg  pair 

2  an  micel  ea  up  in  on  paet  land,     pa  cirdon  hie  up  in  on 

3  fca  ea,  for  psem  hie  ne  dorston  for)?  bi  paere  ea  siglan  for 

4  unfripe ;  for  paem  (5aet  land  waes  eall  gebun  on  opre  healfe 

5  paere  eas.      Ne  mette  he  eer  nan  gebun  land,  sippan  he 
e  from  his  agnum  ham  for ;  ac  him  waes  ealne  weg  weste 
7  land  on  past  steorbord,  butan  fiscerum  ond  fugelerum  ond 
s  huntum,  ond  past  waeron  eall  Finnas ;    ond  him  waes  a 
9  widsai  on  Sset  baecbord.     pa  Beormas  haefdon  swipe  wel 

10  gebud  hira  land :   ac  hie  ne  dorston  pair  on  cuman.     Ac 

11  para   Terfinna  land  waes   eal   weste,  buton   Seer   huntan 

12  gewicodon,  opj>e  fisceras,  oppe  fugeleras. 

13  Fela  spella  him  sSdon  pa  Beormas  eegper  ge  of  hiera 

14  agnum  lande  ge  of  psem  landum  pe  ymb  hie  utan  weeron ; 
is  ac  he  nyste  hwaet  paes  sopes  wees,  for  piem  he  hit  self  ne 

16  geseah.     pa  Finnas,  him  puhte,  ond  pa  Beormas  spriiecon 

17  neah  an  gepeode.      Swipost  he  for  Sider,  to  eacan  paes 
is  landes   sceawunge,  for  paem   horshweelum,  for   tSSm   hie 

19  habbaS  swipe  aepele  ban  on  hioraHopum — pa  te5  hie  broh- 

20  ton  sume  psem  cyninge  —  $nd  hiora  hyd  biS  swiSe  god  to 

21  sciprapum.     Se  hwael  biS  micle  leessa  ponne  65re  hwalas : 

22  ne  bits  he  l^ngra  Sonne  syfan3  $lna  lang;  ac  on  his  agnum 

23  lande  is  se  be_tsta  hwaelhuntaS :   pa  beoS  eahta  and  feo- 

24  wertiges  e^na  lange,  and  pa  maastan  f Iftiges  e,lna  lange ; 

25  para  he  saede  past  he  syxa  sum  ofsloge  syxtig  on  twam 

26  dagum. 

6.  frqin  his  agnum  ham.  An  adverbial  dative  singular  with- 
out an  inflectional  ending  is  found  with  ham,  daeg,  morgen,  and 
gefen. 

8.    qnd  )?aet  wseron.     See  §  40,  Note  3. 

15.   hwaet  )>ass  so]?es  •waes.     Sweet  errs  in  explaining  sopea  as 
attracted  into  the  genitive  by  J>aes.     It  is  not  a  predicate  adjective, 
but  a  partitive  genitive  after  hwaet. 
25.   syxa  stun.    See  §  91,  Note  2. 


The  Voyages  of  Ohthere  and  Wulfstan.          105 

i      He  wses  swySe  spedig  man  on  faim  sehtum  fe  heora2 
•2  speda  on  beoft,  j>aet  is,  on  wildrum.     He  haefde  fa  gyt,  3a 

3  he  )>one  cyningc5  sohte,  tamra  deora  unbebohtra  syx  hund. 

4  pa  deor  hi  hataS  '  hranas ' ;  para  wgeron  syx  stselhranas ; 

5  Sa  beo<5  swytSe  dyre  mid  Finnum,  for  tSeem   hy  fotS   fa 
c  wildan  hranas  mid.     He  waes  mid  fiem  fyrstum  mannum 
7  on  pieni  lande :  naefde  he  J>eah  ma  Sonne  twentig  hrySera, 
s  and  twentig  sceapa,  and  twentig  swyna ;    and  faet  lytle 
9  faet  he  ^rede,  he  ^recle  mid  horsan.4     Ac  hyra  ar  is  mSst 

10  on  faim  gafole  fe  Sa  Finnas  him  gyldaS.     paet  gafol  bi5 

11  on  deora  fellum,  and  on  fugela  feSerum,  and  hwales  bane, 

12  and  on  faem  sciprapum  }>e  beoS  of  hwaeles  hyde  geworht 

13  and  of  seoles.    ^Eghwilc  gylt  be  hys  gebyrdum.     Se  byrd- 

14  esta  sceall  gyldan  fiftyne  meart5es  fell,  and  fif  hranes, 

15  and  an  beren  fel,  and  tyn  ambra  fe^ra,  and  berenne  kyr- 

16  tel  oS8e  yterenne,  and  twegen  sciprapas ;  aegfer  sy  syxtig 

17  ^Ina  lang,  ofer  sy  of  hwseles  hyde  geworht,  ofer  of  sioles.6 
is      He  sajde  tSset  NorSmanna  land  ware  swyfe  lang  and 

19  swyt5e  smsel.     Eal  faet  his  man  after  oS5e  §ttan  oSSe  ^rian 

20  maeg,  faet  lift  wift  fta  sse ;    and  fset  is  feah   on   sumum 

21  stowum  swyfte  cludig;  and  licgaft  wilde  moras  wift  eastan 

22  and  witS  upp  on  emnlange  faem  bynum  lande.     On  fsem 

23  morum  eardiaft  Finnas.      And  faet  byne  land   is   easte- 

24  weard  bradost,  and  symle  swa  norftor  swa  smaelre.     Easte- 

25  w^rd"  hit  maeg  blon8  syxtig  mlla  brad,  ofj>e  hwene  braedre ; 

26  and  middeweard  jmtig  oftSe  bradre ;  and  norfteweard  he 

27  cwaatS,  fser  hit  smalost  weere,  faet  hit  mihte  beon  freora 
2s  mlla  brad  to  fsem  more ;  and  se  mor  syt5J>an,9  on  sumum 

2.    onbeoS.     See  §  94,  (5). 

19.  Eal  Jjget  his  man.  Pronominal  genitives  are  not  always  pos- 
sessive in  O.E. ;  his  is  here  the  partitive  genitive  of  hit,  the  succeeding 
relative  pronoun  being  omitted:  All  that  (portion)  of  it  that  may, 
either-of-the-two,  either  be  grazed  or  plowed,  etc.  (§  70,  Note). 


106  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  stowum,  swa  brad  swa  man  maeg  on  twam  wucum  ofer- 

2  feran  ;  and  on  sumum  stowum  swa  brad  swa  man  maeg 

3  on  syx  dagum  oferferan. 

4  Donne  is  toemnes  psem  lande  sutSeweardum,   on   6<5re 

5  healfe  )>aes  mores,   Sweoland,  of   J>aet   land  nortSeweard  ; 
e  and  toemnes  paem  lande  norSeweardum,  Cwena  land,     pa 
7  Cwenas  hejgiao"  hwllum  on  $a  NorSme_n  ofer  Sone  mor, 
s  hwilum  J>a  Nor^m^n  on  hy.     And  )>ser  sint  swiSe  micle 
9  m^ras  fersce  geond  )>a  moras;  and  beraS  fa  Cwenas  hyra 

10  scypu  ofer  land  on  $a  m^ras,  and  fanon  h^rgiaS  on  (5a 

11  Nor<5m§n  ;    hy    habbaS    swyt5e    lytle    scypa    and    swySe 

12  leohte. 

1  =  meahte,  mihte.          *  =  horsum.  7  =  -weard. 

2  =  hiera.  6  =  cyning.  8  =  beon. 
8  =  seofon.                        •  =  seoles.  9  = 


Ohthere's  Second  Voyage. 

is      Ohth^re  saede  faet  sio1  scir  hatte  Halgoland,  )>e  he  on 
w  bude.     He  cwaeS  faet  nan  man  ne  bude  be  nor^an  him. 

15  ponne  is  an  port  on  sufieweardurn  fseni  lande,  fone  man 

16  hset  Sciringesheal.      pyder  he  cwasS  ]>set  man  ne  rnihte 

17  geseglian  on  anum  monSe,  gyf  man  on  niht  wicode,  and 
is  selce  daege  haefde  ambyrne  wind  ;   and  ealle  ^a  hwile  he 

19  sceal  seglian  be  lande.     And  on  faet  steorbord  him  bit5 

20  serest  Iraland,  and  fonne  $a  igland  \>e  synd  betux  Ira- 

21  lande  and  fissum  lande.     ponne  is  J)is  land,  o3  he  cymS 

22  to  Scirincgesheale,  and  ealne  weg  on  faet  baacbord  NorS- 

11-12.  scypa  .  .  .  leohte.  These  words  exhibit  inflections  more 
frequent  in  Late  than  in  Early  West  Saxon.  The  normal  forms  would 
be  scypu,  leoht  ;  but  in  Late  West  Saxon  the  -u  of  short-stemmed 
neuters  is  generally  replaced  by  -a  ;  and  the  nominative  accusative 
plural  neuter  of  adjectives  takes,  by  analogy,  the  masculine  endings  ; 
hwate,  gode,  halge,  instead  of  hwatu,  god,  halgu. 


The  Voyages  of  Ohthere  and  Wulfstan.         107 

1  weg.     WitS  suSan  fone  Sciringesheal  fylS  swySe  mycel 

2  sse  up  in  on  Saet.land ;  seo  is  bradre  fonne  aenig  man  ofer 

3  seon  msege.     And  is  Gotland  on  6t5re  healfe  ongean,  and 

4  si5ftan  Sille_nde.     Seo  see  ll<5  msenig2  hund  mila  up  in  on 

5  }>8et  land. 

e  And  of  Sciringesheale  he  cweeS  Saet  he  seglode  on  fif 
7  dagan 3  to  faem  porte  f  e  moji  haet  set  Reefum ;  se  ste_nt 
s  betuh  Winedura,  and  Seaxum,  and  Angle,  and  hyrS  in 
9  on  D^ne.  Da  he  {jiderweard  seglode  fram  Sciringes- 
10  heale,  )?a  wass  him  on  )>aet  bsecbord  D^namearc  and  on 
n  j?aet  steorbord  wldsae  Jry  dagas ;  and  fa,  twegen  dagas  ier 

12  he  to  Hsefum  come,  him  wass  on  J>set  steorbord  Gotland, 

13  and  Sill^nde,  and  iglanda  fela.     On  J>aim  landum  eardo- 
u  don  Jpngle,  ser  hi  hider  on  land  coman.4    And  hym  wees 
is  8a  twegen  dagas  on  Saet   baecbord   fa   igland   J>e   in   on 

16  D^nemearce  hyraft. 

1  =  seo.  2  =  mgnig.  8  =  dagum.  *  =  c6men. 

Wulfstan's  Voyage. 

17  Wulfstan  ssede  faet  he  gefore  of  HaeSum,  fast  he  wgere 
is  on  Truso  on  syfan  dagum  and  nihtum,  faet  feet  scip  wass 
19  ealne  weg  yrnende  under  segle.     WeonoSland  him  wees 

7.  act  Haejjum.  "This  pleonastic  use  of  cet  with  names  of 
places  occurs  elsewhere  in  the  older  writings,  as  in  the  Chronicle 
(552),  'in  J>jere  stowe  be  is  gen^mned  set  Searobyrg,'  where  the  cet 
has  been  erased  by  some  later  hand,  showing  that  the  idiom  had 
become  obsolete.  Cp.  the  German  '  Gasthaus  zur  Krone,'  Stamboul  = 
es  tan  polin."  (Sweet.)  See,  also,  Atterbury,  §  28,  Note  3. 

14-15.  wees  .  .  .  )?a  igland.  The  singular  predicate  is  due  again 
to  inversion  (p.  100,  note  on  gefeaht).  The  construction  is  compara- 
tively rare  in  O.E.,  but  frequent  in  Shakespeare  and  in  the  popular 
speech  of  to-day.  Cf.  There  is,  Here  is,  There  has  been,  etc.,  with 
a  (single)  plural  subject  following. 


108  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  on  steorbord,  and  on  bsecbord  him  wees  Langaland,  and 

2  Laeland,   and   Falster,   and   Sconeg ;    and   pas   land   eall 

3  hyra<5  to  De^nemearcan.     And  ponne  Burgenda  land  wses 

4  us  on  baecbord,  and  pa  habbaS  him  sylfe !  cyning.     ponne 

5  aefter  Burgenda  lande  wgeron  us  pas  land,  pa  synd  hatene 
e  gerest  Blecinga-eg,  and  Meore,  and  Eowland,  and  Gotland 
7  on  bsecbord ;  and  pas  land  hyraS  to  Sweom.     And  Weo- 
s  nodland  wses  us  ealne  weg  on  steorbord  o3  WlslemuSan. 
9  Seo  Wisle  is  swySe  mycel  ea,  and  hio2  tollS  Witland  and 

10  Weonodland ;  and  fast  Witland  belimpeS  to  Estum ;  and 

11  seo  Wisle  Ii5  ut  of  Weonodlande,  and  li(5  in  Estmeje ; 

12  and  se  Estm^re  is  huru  fiftene3  mila  brad,     ponne  cymeS 
is  Ilfing  eastan  in  Estm^re  of  Seem  m^re,  ^e  Truso  standeS 
u  in  stse<5e ;  and  cumaS  ut  samod  in  Estm^re,  Ilfing  eastan 
is  of    Estlande,   and   Wisle    sii(5an    of   Winodlande.      And 

16  ponne  benimS  Wisle  Ilfing  hire  naman,  and  lige<5  of  }>ahn 

17  m^re  west  and  norS  on  see ;   for  Sy  hit  man  haet  Wisle- 
is  mu^a. 

19  past  Estland  is  swySe  mycel,  and  peer  biS  swySe  manig 

20  burh,  and   on   selcere   byrig   bift   cyning.      And   peer  bit5 

21  swytSe  mycel  hunig,  and  fiscnaS ;    and  se  cyning  and  pa 

22  ricostan  m^n  drincaS  myran  meolc,  and  pa  unspedigan 

23  and  pa   peowan   drincaft   medo.4     peer  bi3   swy^e   mycel 

24  gewinn  betweonan  him.     And  ne   bi5  t5ser  nsenig   ealo5 

25  gebrowen  mid  Estum,  ac  peer  bi$  medo  genoh.     And  peer 

26  is  mid  Estum  Seaw,  ponne  peer  bift  man  dead,  past  he  liS 

27  inne  unforbserned  mid  his  magum  and  freondum  mona?5, 

28  ge  hwilum  twegen ;   and  pa  cyningas,  and  pa  6<5re  heah- 

29  t5ungene   m^n,   swa   micle   le^ncg6  swa  hi   maran    speda 

30  habbaS,  hwilum  healf  gear  past  hi  beoS  unforbserned,  and 


1-4.   him  .  .  .  us.     Note  the  characteristic  change  of  person,  the 
transition  from  indirect  to  direct  discourse. 


The  Voyages  of  Ohthere  and  Wulfstan.         109 

1  licgao"  bufan  eorftan  on  hyra  husuin.     And  ealle  pa  hwlle 

2  pe  paat  lie  bio"  inne,  pier  sceal  beon  gedrync  and  plega, 

3  oft  tSone  daag  pe  hi  hine  forbaarnao".     ponne  py  ylcan  daege 

4  }>e  hi  hine  to  paam  ade  beran  wyllao",  ponne  todaalao"  hi 

5  his  feoh,  paat  paar  to  lafe  bits  sefter  paam  gedrynce  and  paam 
e  plegan,  on  fif  oSSe  syx,  hwylum  on  ma,  swa  swa  pass  feos 
7  andefn  bift.      Al^cgaS  hit  tJonne  forhwaega  on  anre  mile 
s  pone  mgestan  dgel  fram  p£em  tune,  ponne  6(5erne,  Sonne 
9  pone  priddan,  op  pe  hyt  call  aled  bit5  on  paere  anre  mile ; 

10  and  sceall  beon  se  lassta  d«l  nyhst  piem  tilne  5e  se  deada 

11  man  on  115.      Donne  sceolon7  beon  gesamnode  ealle  Sa 

12  m^nn  Se  swyftoste  hors  habbaS  on  psem  lande,  forhwaaga 

13  on  fif  milum  o35e  on  syx  milum  fram  paem  feo.     ponne 

14  aernatS  hy  ealle  toweard  palm  feo :  Sonne  cymeS  se  man 

15  se  past  swiftoste  hors  hafat5  to  paam  Srestan  daele  and  to 

16  pasni  maastan,  and  swa  selc  asfter  o8rum,  op  hit  bift  eall 

17  genumen ;   and  se  nim5  pone  lasstan  dasl  se  nyhst  psem 
is  tune  past  feoh  geasrneS.     And  ponne  rideS  gelc  hys  weges 

19  mid  Seem  feo,  and  hyt  motan 8  habban  eall ;  and  for  3y 

20  pasr  beoS  pa  swiftan  hors  ungefoge  dyre.     And  ponne  his 

21  gestreon  beoS  pus  eall  asp^nded,  ponne  byr5  man  hine  ut, 

22  and  forbaarneS  mid  his  waapnum  and  hraagle ;  and  swltSost 

2.    sceal.     See  §  137,  Note  2  (2). 

7.    Al^cgaS  hit.    Bosworth  illustrates  thus : 

vi  v  iv  iii  ii  i     1     2  3  456 


e  d  c    b  a 

Where  The  six  parts  of  the 

the  horsemen  property  placed 

assemble.  within  one  mile. 

"The  horsemen  assemble  five  or  six  miles  from  the  property,  at  d 
or  e,  and  run  towards  c ;  the  man  who  has  the  swiftest  horse,  coming 
first  to  1  or  c,  takes  the  first  and  largest  part.  The  man  who  has  the 
horse  coming  second  takes  part  2  or  6,  and  so,  in  succession,  till  the 
least  part,  6  or  a,  is  taken," 


110  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  ealle  hys  speda  hy  forsp$nda<5  mid  }>sem  langan  legere 

2  fees  deadan  mannes  inne,  and  paes  ]>e  hy  be  fgem  wegum 

3  al^cgaS,  ]>e  <5a  fr^mdan  to  aerna<5,  and  nimaS.      And  J>aet 

4  is  mid  Estum   peaw  }>aet  pair  sceal  selces   geSeodes  man 

5  beon  f  orbaerned ;   and  gy f  far 9  man  an  ban  findeS  unf or- 

6  baerned,  hi  hit  sceolan7  miclum  gebetan.     And  peer  is  mid 

7  Estum  an  maJgS  J?aet  hi  magon  cyle  gewyrcan ;   and  )>y 
s  peer  licgao"  fa  deadan  m^n  swa  lange,  and  ne  f QliaS,  J>aet 
9  hy  wyrcaS   pone   cyle   him  on.      And   )>eah   man   as^tte 

10  twegen   fsetels   full   ealat5   oSSe   waateres,   hy   gedoS   faet 

11  segfer  bi<5  oferfroren,  sam  hit  sy  sumor  sam  winter. 

1  =  selfe.  4  =  medu.  "  =  sculon. 

2  =  heo.  5  =  ealu.  8  =  mSton. 
8  =  flftlene.                     6  =  l^ng.  9  =  'Saer. 

5-6.  man  ...  hi.  Here  the  plural  M  refers  to  the  singular  man. 
Cf.  p.  109,  11.  18-19,  aelc  .  .  .  motan.  In  Exodus  xxxii,  24,  we 
find  "  Whosoever  hath  any  gold,  let  them  break  it  off"  ;  and  Addison 
writes,  "I  do  not  mean  that  I  think  anyone  to  blame  for  taking  due 
care  of  their  health."  The  construction,  though  outlawed  now,  has 
been  common  in  all  periods  of  our  language.  Paul  remarks  (Prinzipien 
der  Sprachgeschichte,  3d  ed.,  §  186)  that  "  When  a  word  is  used  as  an 
indefinite  [one,  man,  somebody,  etc.]  it  is,  strictly  speaking,  incapable 
of  any  distinction  of  number.  Since,  however,  in  respect  of  the 
external  form,  a  particular  number  has  to  be  chosen,  it  is  a  matter  of 
indifference  which  this  is.  .  .  .  Hence  a  change  of  numbers  is  common 
in  the  different  languages."  Paul  fails  to  observe  that  the  change  is 
always  from  singular  to  plural,  not  from  plural  to  singular.  See  Note 
on  the  Concord  of  Collectives  and  Indefinites  (Anglia  XT,  1901).  See 
p.  119,  note  on  11.  19-21. 


The  Story  of  Ccedmon.  Ill 


IV.    THE   STORY   OF   C^DMOK 

[From  the  so-called  Alfredian  version  of  Bede's  Ecclesiastical  History. 
The  text  generally  followed  is  that  of  MS.  Bodley,  Tanner  10.  Miller 
(Early  English  Text  Society,  No.  95,  Introd.)  argues,  chiefly  from  the 
use  of  the  prepositions,  that  the  original  O.E.  MS.  was  Mercian,  com- 
posed possibly  in  Lichfield  (Staffordshire).  At  any  rate,  O.E.  idiom  is 
frequently  sacrificed  to  the  Latin  original. 

"  Caedmon,  as  he  is  called,  is  the  first  Englishman  whose  name  we  know 
who  wrote  poetry  in  our  island  of  England ;  and  the  first  to  embody  in 
verse  the  new  passions  and  ideas  which  Christianity  had  brought  into 
England.  .  .  .  Undisturbed  by  any  previous  making  of  lighter  poetry, 
he  came  fresh  to  the  work  of  Christianising  English  song.  It  was  a  great 
step  to  make.  He  built  the  chariot  in  which  all  the  new  religious  emo- 
tions of  England  could  now  drive  along."  (Brooke,  The  History  of  Early 
English  Literature,  cap.  XV.)  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  historical 
existence  of  Csedmon;  for  Bede,  who  relates  the  story,  lived  near  Whitby, 
and  was  seven  years  old  when  Csedmon  died  (A.D.  680)]. 

i      In  (Sysse  abbudissan  mynstre  wses  sum  broSor  syndrig- 
•2  lice  mid  godcundre  gife  gemaered  $nd  geweortSad,  for  bon 

3  he  gewimade  gerisenlice  leo<5  wyrcan,  ba  (5e  to  aef ^stnisse l 

4  gnd  to  arfsestnisse  beluinpon ;  swa  Ssette  swa  hwaet  swa 

5  he  of  godcundum  stafum  jmrh  boceras  geleornode,  bset  he 

6  aefter  medmiclum  fsece  in  scopgereorde  mid  ba  maestan 
;  swetnisse  o^id  inbryrdnisse   gegl^ngde,  $nd  in  Englisc- 
s  gereorde  wel  geworht  forp  brohte.    Qnd  for  his  leobsongnm 

1.  Sysse  abbudissan.  The  abbess  referred  to  is  the  famous  Hild, 
or  Hilda,  then  living  in  the  monastery  at  Streones-halh,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Bede,  means  "Bay -of  the  Beacon."  The  Danes  afterward 
gave  it  the  name  Whitby,  or  "  White  Town."  The  surroundings 
were  eminently  fitted  to  nurture  England's  first  poet.  "The  natural 
scenery  which  surrounded  him,  the  valley  of  the  Esk,  on  whose  sides 
he  probably  lived,  the  great  cliffs,  the  billowy  sea,  the  vast  sky  seen 
from  the  heights  over  the  ocean,  played  incessantly  upon  him." 
(Brooke.) 

Note,  also,  in  this  connection,  the  numerous  Latin  words  that  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  (A.D.  597)  brought  into  the  vocabulary 
of  O.E. :  abbudisse,  mynster,  bisceop.  Laeden.  preost.  aestel. 
mancuB. 


112  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  mgnigra  monna  mod  oft  to  worulde  forhogdnisse  gnd  to 

2  gepeodnisse  J>ses  heofonllcan  llfes  onbaernde  waeron.     Qnd 

3  eac  swelce2  monige  o<5re  aefter  him  in  Qngelpeode  ongun- 

4  non  gefe_ste  leoS  wyrean,  ac  nsenig  hwseSre  him  J>aet  gelice 

5  don  ne  meahte ;  for  fon  he  nalaes  from  monnum  ne  Surh 
e  rnon  gelgered  wees  feet  he  5one  leo^crseft  leornade,  ac  he 
7  wees  godcundllce  gefultumod,  ond  Jmrh  Godes  gife  |>one 
s  songcraef t  onf  eng ;  ond  he  for  Son  neef  re  noht  leasnnge, 
9  ne  Idles  leopes  wyrean  ne  meahte,  ac  ef  ne  j?a  an  Sa  Se  to 

10  eef ^stnisse 1  belumpon,  ond  his  )>a  sef ^stan  tungan  gedaf- 

11  enode  singan. 

12  Wees  he,  se  mon,  in  weoruldhade3  ges^ted  oc5  j?a  tide  )>e 

13  he  wees  gelyfdre  ylde,  ond  neefre  ngenig  leocS  geleornade. 

14  Qnd  he  for  )>on  oft  in  gebeorscipe,  jwnne  J>eer  waes  blisse 
is  intinga  gedemed,  feet  heo4  ealle  sceolden  }mrh  ^ndebyrd- 

16  nesse  be  hearpan  singan,  fonne  he  geseah  J>a  hearpan  him 

17  nealecan,  fonne   aras   he   for   scome  frgm  psern  symble, 
is  ond  ham   eode  to  his  huse.      pa  he  fset  pa  sumre  tide 
19  dyde,  fset  he  forlet  \>set  hus  faes  gebeorscipes,  ond  ut  waes 

4-5.  The  more  usual  order  of  words  would  be  ac  naeiiig.  hwaeSre, 
ne  meahte  Saet  don  gelice  him. 

10-11.  9nd  his  .  .  .  singan.  and  which  it  became  his  (the)  pious 
tongue  to  sing. 

14-1&.  blisse  intinga,  for  the  sake  of  joy ;  but  the  translator  has 
confused  laetitiae  causa  (ablative)  and  laetitiae  causa  (nominative). 
The  proper  form  would  be  for  blisse  with  omission  of  intingan.  just 
as  for  my  sake  is  usually  for  me  ;  for  his  (or  their)  sake,  for  him. 
Cf.  Mark  vi,  26  :  "Yet  for  his  oath's  sake,  and  for  their  sakes  ichich 
sat  with  him,  he  would  not  reject  her,"  for  3aem  a8e,  9nd  for  Seem 
be  him  mid  saeton.  For  his  sake  is  frequently  for  his  Singon 
(Singum),  rarely  for  his  intingan.  pingon  is  regularly  used  when 
the  preceding  genitive  is  a  noun  denoting  a  person  :  for  my  wife's 
sake,  for  mines  wlfes  Singon  (Genesis  xx,  11),  etc. 

18-19.  baet  .  .  .  baet  he  forlet.  The  substantival  clause  intro- 
duced by  the  second  baet  amplifies  by  apposition  the  first  baet : 
When  he  then,  at  a  certain  time  (instrumental  case,  §  98,  (2)),  did 


The  Story  of  Ccedmon.  113 

1  gqngende  to  neata  scipene,  para   heord   him   wass   psere 

2  nihte  beboden ;    )>a    he    $a   J><£r   on   gelimpllcre  tide  his 

3  leonm5  on  re_ste  ges^tte  ond  onslepte,  pa  stod  him  sum 

4  m$n  set  Jmrh  swefn,  ond  hine  halette  ond  grette.  ond  hine 

5  be  his  noman  n^mnde:  "Caedmon,  sing  me  hwaethwugu." 

6  pa  ondswarede  he,  ond  cwaeft :  "  Ne  con  ic  noht  singan ; 

7  $nd  ic  for  ,)>on  of  pyssum  gebeorscipe  ut  code  ond  hider 

8  gewat,  for  pon  ic  naht  singan  ne  cuSe."    Eft  he  cwaetS  se  Se 

9  wi5  hine  sprecende  wees:  "HweetJre  J>u  meant  me  singan." 

10  pa  cwaecS  he :  "  Hwaet  sceal  ic  singan  ?  "    CwaetS  he :  "  Sing 

11  me   frumsceaft."      pa  he   $a   pas   andsware    onfeng,   J>a 

12  ongon  he  soua  singan,  in  hejenesse  Godes  Scyppendes, 

13  fa  fers  Qnd  )>a  word  )>e  he  neefre  ne  gehyrde,  )>ara  §nde- 

14  byrdnes  pis  is  : 

15  Nu  sculon  he_rigean6    heofonrices  Weard, 

16  Metodes  meahte     ond  his  rnodgepanc, 

17  weorc  Wuldorfaeder,     swa  he  wundra  gehwses, 
is  ece  Drihten     or  onstealde. 

that,  namely,  when  he  left  the  house.  The  better  Mn.E.  would  be 
this  .  .  .  that:  "Added  yet  this  above  all,  that  he  shut  up  John  in 
prison  "  (Luke  iv,  20). 

1-2.  Jjara  .  .  .  beboden.  This  does  not  mean  that  Csedmon  was 
a  herdsman,  but  that  he  served  in  tuni  as  did  the  other  secular  attend- 
ants at  the  monastery. 

13-14.  bara  ^ndebyrdnes  bis  is.  Bede  writes  Hie  est  sensus,  non 
autem  ordo  ipse  verborum,  and  gives  in  Latin  prose  a  translation  of 
the  hymn  from  the  Northumbrian  dialect,  in  which  Csedmon  wrote. 
The  O.E.  version  given  above  is,  of  course,  not  the  Northumbrian 
original  (which,  however,  with  some  variations  is  preserved  in  several 
of  the  Latin  MSS.  of  Bede's  History},  but  a  West  Saxon  version  made 
also  from  the  Northumbrian,  not  from  the  Latin. 

15.  Nu  sculon  herigean.  Now  ought  we  to  praise.  The  subject 
we  is  omitted  in  the  best  MSS.  Note  the  characteristic  use  of  synonyms, 
or  epithets,  in  this  bit  of  O.E.  poetry.  Observe  that  it  is  not  the  thought 
that  is  repeated,  but  rather  the  idea,  the  concept,  God.  See  p.  124. 

17.    wundra  gehwaes.     See  p.  140,  note  on  cenra  gehwylcum. 
i 


114  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  He  serest  sceop     eorSan  bearnum 

2  heofon  to  hrofe,     halig  Scyppend  ; 

3  }>a  middangeard     monncynnes  Weard, 

4  ece  Drihten,     sefter  teode 

5  firum  foldan,     Frea  selmihtig. 

e  pa  aras  he  from  psem  sleepe,  $nd  eal  }>a  J>e  he  slaapende 
7  song  faeste  in  gemynde  hsef de ;  ond  paim  wordum  sona 
s  monig  word  in  past  ilce  gemet  Gode  wyrSes  SQnges  to- 
9  gepeodde.  pa  com  he  on  morgenne  to  Jwem  tungerefan, 

10  se  )>e  his  ealdorm^n  waes  :    saegde  him  hwylce  gife  he 

11  onfeng ;  §nd  he  hine  sona  to  faere  abbudissan  gelsedde, 

12  ond  hire  \>set  cySde  ond  saegde.     pa  heht  heo  ges^mnian 

13  ealle  fa  gelseredestan   m^n   ond   fa  leorneras,  Qnd   him 

14  ondweardum  het  slogan  paet  swefn,  ^nd  faet  Ieo5  singan, 

15  J>aet  ealra  heora7  dome  gecoreu  weere,  hwast  ofrSe  hwQnan 

16  faet  cumen  weere.     pa  waas  him  eallum  gesewen,  swa  swa 
IT  hit  W33S,  feet  him  waare  frQm  Drihtne  sylfum  heofonlic 


7-9.  pnd  J?aem  wordum  .  .  .  toge)peodde.  and  to  those  words  he 
soon  joined,  in  the  same  meter,  many  (other)  words  of  song  worthy 
of  God.  But  the  translator  has  not  only  blundered  over  Bede's  Latin 
(eis  mox  plura  in  eitndem  modum  verba  Deo  digna  carminis  adjunxit}, 
but  sacrificed  still  more  the  idioin  of  O.E.  The  predicate  should  not 
come  at  the  end  ;  in  should  be  followed  by  the  dative  ;  and  for  Gode 
wyrSes  &9nges  the  better  O.E.  would  be  sgnges  Godes  wyrSes. 
When  used  with  the  dative  wyrS  (weorS)  usually  means  dear  (=  of 
worth)  to. 

16.  Jj5  .  .  .  gesewen.  We  should  expect  trqva.  him  eallum  ; 
but  the  translator  has  again  closely  followed  the  Latin  (visumque  est 
omnibus),  as  later  (in  the  Conversion  of  Edwin)  he  renders  Talis 
mihi  videtur  by  Jjysllc  me  is  gesewen.  Talis  (Jjyslic)  agreeing  with 
a  following  vita  (lif).  ^Ifric,  however,  with  no  Latin  before  him, 
writes  that  John  wearS  Sa  him  [  =  frgm  Drihtene]  inweardllce 
gelufod.  It  would  seem  that  in  proportion  as  a  past  participle  has 
the  force  of  an  adjective,  the  to  relation  may  supplant  the  by  relation  ; 
just  as  we  say  unknown  to  instead  of  unknown  by,  unknown  being 
more  adjectival  than  participial.  Gesewen,  therefore,  may  here  be 


The  Story  of  Ccedmon.  115 

1  gifu  forgifen.     pa  re_hton  heo4  him  ond  saegdon  sum  halig 

2  spell  ond  godcundre  lare  word :  bebudon  him  J>a,  gif  he 
a  meahte,  j>aet  he  in  swmsunge  leo)>songes  j>aet  gehwyrfde. 

4  pa  he  Sa  haefde  fa  wisan  onfongne,  )>a  code  he  ham  to 

5  his  huse,  ond  cwom  eft  on   niorgenne,  §nd   }>y  b^tstan 
e  leofte  gegle^iged  him  asong  ond  ageaf  )>aet  him  beboden 
7  waes. 

s      Da  ongan  seo  abbudisse  clyppan  ond  lufigean8  )>a  Godes 
9  gife  in  }>sem  ni^n,  ond  heo  hine  )>a  m^nade  ond  Iserde 

10  Jjget  he  woruldhad  forlete  ond  munuchad  onf enge :  ^nd 

11  he  faet  wel  fafode.    Qnd  heo  hine  in  )>set  mynster  onfeng 

12  mid  his  godurn,  ond  hine  gefeodde  to  gesomnunge  fara 

13  Godes  }>eowa,  ond  heht  hine  laeran  fset  getsel  fees  halgan 
H  stseres  ond  spelles.     Qnd   he   eal   J»a  he   in   gehyrnesse 

15  geleornian  meahte,  mid  hine  gemyndgade,  ond  swa  s\va 

16  cl»ne  neten 9  eodorcende  in  fset  sweteste  Ieot5  gehwyrfde. 

17  Qud  his  song  ond  his  leoS  weeron  swa  wynsumu  to  gehyr- 
is  anne,  J>sette  }>a  seolfan10  his  lareowas  set  his  uiu^e  writon 

19  ond  leornodon.    SQng  he  gerest  be  middangeardes  gesceape, 

20  ond  bi  fruman  m^ncynnes,  Qnd  eal  fset  steer  Genesis  (}>aet 

21  is  seo  sereste  Moyses  boc) ;  ond  eft  bi  utgonge  Israhela 

22  folces  of  ^Egypta  londe,  ond  bi  ingonge  )>aes  gehatlandes ; 

23  ond  bi   oSrum   monegnm   spellum   faes   halgan   gewrites 

translated  visible,  evident,  patent  (=  gesynelic,  sw^eotol);  and  geluf- 
od,  dear  (=  weorS,  leof). 

A  survival  of  adjectival  gesewen  is  found  in  Wycliffe's  New  Testa- 
ment (1  Cor.  xv,  5-8):  "He  was  seyn  to  Cephas,  and  aftir  these 
thingis  to  enleuene ;  aftirward  he  was  seyn  to  mo  than  fyue  hundrid 
britheren  togidere  .  .  .  aftirward  he  was  seyn  to  James,  and  aftirward 
to  alle  the  apostlis.  And  last  of  alle  he  was  seyn  to  me,  as  to  a  deed 
borun  child."  The  construction  is  frequent  in  Chaucer. 

9-10.  9iid  heo  hine  )?a  mpnade  .  .  .  munuchad  onfenge.  Hild's 
advice  has  in  it  the  suggestion  of  a  personal  experience,  for  she  herself 
had  lived  half  of  her  life  (thirty-three  years)  "before,"  says  Bede, 
"  she  dedicated  the  remaining  half  to  our  Lord  in  a  monastic  life." 


116  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  canones  boca ;   ond  bi  Crlstes  m^nniscnesse,  ond  bi  his 

2  browunge,  ond  bi  his  upastignesse  in  heofonas ;  ond  bi 

3  paes  Halgan  Gastes  cyme,  ond  para  apostola  lare ;  ond  eft 

4  bi  paem  daege  paes  toweardan  domes,  ond  bi  fyrhtu  paes 

5  tintreglican  wites,  ond  bi  swetnesse  paes  heofonllcan  rices, 
e  he  monig  leoS  geworhte;  ond  swelce2  eac  oSer  monig  be 
7  piem  godcundan  fr^msumnessum  ond  domum  he  geworhte. 
s  In  eallum  paem  he  geornllce  gemde u  paat  he  m^n  atuge 
9  from  synna  lufan  ond   mandseda,  ond  to  lufan   ond  to 

10  geornfulnesse  aw^hte  godra  daeda ;  for  pon  he  waes,  se 
u  m^n,  swipe  eef^st  ond  regolllcum  peodscipum  eaSmodlice 
12  underpeoded ;  ond  wi<5  paem  pa  Se  in  oSre  wisan  don  woldon, 
is  he  waes  mid  welme12  micelre  ^llenwodnisse  onbaerned. 
14  Qnd  he  for  Son  faegre  $nde  his  llf  betynde  ond  ge^ndade. 

1  =  sefsestnesse.  5  =  limu.  9  =  nleten. 

2  =  swilce.  6  =  he/ian.  10  =  self  an. 

3  =  woruldhade.  7  =  hiera.  1J  =  giemde. 
*  =  hie.  8  =  lufian.  ^  =  wielme. 


V.  ALFRED'S  PEEFACE  TO  THE  PASTORAL  CARE. 

[Based  on  the  Hatton  MS.  Of  the  year  597,  the  Chronicle  says:  "In 
this  year,  Gregory  the  Pope  sent  into  Britain  Augustine  with  very  many 
monks,  who  gospelled  [preached]  God's  word  to  the  English  folk." 
Gregory  I,  surnamed  "  The  Great,"  has  ever  since  been  considered  the 
apostle  of  English  Christianity,  and  his  Pastoral  Care,  which  contains 
instruction  in  conduct  and  doctrine  for  all  bishops,  was  a  work  that 
Alfred  could  not  afford  to  leave  untranslated.  For  this  translation  Alfred 
wrote  a  Preface,  the  historical  value  of  which  it  would  be  hard  to  over- 
rate. In  it  he  describes  vividly  the  intellectual  ruin  that  the  Danes  had 
wrought,  and  develops  at  the  same  time  his  plan  for  repairing  that  ruin. 

6.  h§  ni9iiig  leoS  geworhte.  The  opinion  is  now  gaining 
ground  that  of  these  "many  poems"  only  the  short  hymn,  already 
given,  has  come  down  to  us.  Of  other  poems  claimed  for  Csedmon, 
the  strongest  arguments  are  advanced  in  favor  of  a  part  of  the  frag- 
mentary poetical  paraphrase  of  Genesis. 


Alfred's  Preface  to  the  Pastoral  Care.         117 

This  Preface  and  the  Battle  of  Ashdown  (p.  99)  show  the  great  king  in 
his  twofold  character  of  warrior  and  statesman,  and  justify  the  inscription 
on  the  base  of  the  statue  erected  to  him  in  1877,  at  Wantage  (Berkshire)  , 
his  birth-place:  "^Elfred  found  Learning  dead,  and  he  restored  it;  Edu- 
cation neglected,  and  he  revived  it  ;  the  laws  powerless,  and  he  gave  them 
force  ;  the  Church  debased,  and  he  raised  it  ;  the  Land  ravaged  by  a  fear- 
ful Enemy,  from  which  he  delivered  it.  Alfred's  name  will  live  as  long 
as  mankind  shall  respect  the  Past."] 

1  Alfred  kyning  hateS  gretan  Wserf  erft  biscep1  his  wordum 

2  luflice  ond  freondlice  ;  ond  Se  cySan  hate  Saet  me  com 

3  swrSe  oft  on  gemynd,  hwelce2  witan  m3  wieron  giond4 

4  Angelcynn,  segSer  ge  godcundra  hada  ge  woruldcundra  ; 

5  <jnd  hu  geseeliglica  tida  8a  wseron  giond  Angelcynn  ;  $nd 

6  hu  <5a  kyningas  <5e  <5one  onwald  heefdon  Sees  folces  on 
T  tSam  dagum  Gode  ond   his   serendwrecum  hersumedon  5  ; 
s  Qnd  hu  hie  »gSer  ge  Mora  sibbe  ge  hiora  siodo6  ge  hiora 
9  onweald  innanbordes  gehioldon,4  ond  eac  tit  hiora  eSel 

10  gerymdon  ;  ond  hu  him  6a  speow  segSer  ge  mid  wige  ge 

11  mid  wlsdome  ;    ond  eac  Sa  godcundan  hadas  hu  giorne 

12  hie  wseron  aegSer  ge  ymb  lare  ge  ymb  liornunga,  ge  ymb 
is  ealle  Sa  Siowotdonias  Se  hie  Gode  don  scoldon  ;  ond  hu 

14  man  utanbordes  wisdom  ond  lare  hieder  on  lond  sohte, 

15  ond  hu  we  hie  nu  sceoldon  ute  begietan,  gif  we  hie  habban 

16  sceoldon.     Swee7  claene  hio  waes  oSfeallenu  on  Angelcynne 

17  Sset  swl^e  feawa  wteron  behionan  Humbre  Se  hiora  (Seninga 
is  cutSen  understondan  on  ^nglisc  ot55e  furSum  an  eerendge- 

19  writ  of  Lsedene  on  ^nglisc  ar^ccean  ;  Qnd  ic  wene  Ssette 

20  noht   monige   begiondan  Humbre   naeren.      Swse7  feawa 

21  hiora  wairon  Sset  ic  f  urSum  anne  anlepne  8  ne  meeg 


1-2.  JEilfred  kyning  hateS  .  .  .  hate.  Note  the  change  from 
the  formal  and  official  third  person  (hateS)  to  the  more  familiar  first 
person  (hate).  So  ^Elfric,  in  his  Preface  to  Genesis,  writes  JElfric 
munuc  gret  JESelwaerd  ealdormann  eadmodlice.  pii  baede  me. 
leof,  J?aet  ic,  etc.  :  ^Elfric,  monk,  greets  ^Ethelweard,  alderman, 
humbly.  Thou,  beloved,  didst  bid  me  that  /,  etc. 


118  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  ean  be  suSan  T^mese,  Sa  Sa  ic  to  rice  feng.     Gode  ael- 

2  mihtegum  sle  S$nc  Saette  we  nu  genigne  onstal   habbaS 

3  lareowa.     Qnd  for  Son  ic  Se  beblode  Saet  Su  do  swae7  ic 

4  geliefe  Seet  Su  wille,  Saet  Su  Se  Sissa  woruldSinga  to  Saem 

5  geaemetige,  swae  Su  oftost  maege,  Saet  Su  Sone  wisdom  Se 
e  Se  God  sealde  Seer  Saer  Su  hiene  befaestan  maege,  befaeste. 
i  GeSe_nc  hwelc 9  wltu  us  Sa  becomon  for  Sisse  worulde,  Sa 
s  Sa  we  hit  nohwaeSer  ne  selfe  ne  lufodon,  ne  eac  oSrum 
9  monnum  ne  lef don 10 :  Sone  naman  anne  we  lufodon  Sa3tte 

10  we  Crlstne  wseren,  §nd  swiSe  feawe  Sa  Seawas. 

11  Da  ic  Sa  Sis  eall  gemunde,  Sa  gemunde  ic  eac  hu  ic 

12  geseah,   ser  Saem   Se   hit   eall   forh^rgod  waere   ond  for- 

13  baerned,   hu   Sa    ciricean   giond   eall   Angelcynn    stodon 
u  maSraa  ond  boca  gefylda,  §nd  eac  micel  m^nigeo11  Godes 

15  Siowa ;    ond  Sa  swiSe  lytle  fiornie  Sara  boca  wiston,  for 

16  Saem  Se  hie  hiora  nanwuht K  ongietan  ne  meahton,  for 

17  Seem   Se    hie    nseron    on    hiora    agen    geSiode    awritene. 
is  Swelce 13  hie  cwaeden :  "  Ure  ieldran,  Sa  Se  Sas  stowa  aer 

19  hloldon,  hie  lufodon  wisdom,  ond  Surh  Sone  hie  begeaton 

20  welan,  ond  us  Igefdon.     Her  nnjn  maeg  giet  gesion  hiora 

21  swaeS,  ac  we  him  ne  cunnon  aefter  spyrigean,14  ond  for 

22  Seem  we  habbaS  nu  eegSer  forlaeten  ge  Sone  welan  ge  Sone 

23  wisdom,  for  Saem  Se  we  noldon  to  Saem  spore  mid  ure 

24  mode  onlutan." 

25  Da  ic  Sa  Sis  eall  gemunde,  Sa  wundrade  ic  swiSe  swiSe 

26  Sara  godena  wiotona15  Se  giu  waeron  giond  Angelcynn,  ond 

27  Sa  bee  ealla  be  fullan  geliornod  haefdon,  Saet  hie  hiora  Sa 

6.  Notice  that  maege  (1.  5)  and  maege  (1.  6)  are  not  in  the  sub- 
junctive because  the  sense  requires  it,  but  because  they  have  been 
attracted  by  geaemetige  and  befaeste.  Sien  (p.  119,  1.  15)  and 
heebben  (p.  119,  1.  20)  illustrate  the  same  construction. 

9-10.  We  liked  only  the  reputation  of  being  Christians,  very  few 
(of  MS)  the  Christian  virtues. 


Alfred's  Preface  to  the  Pastoral  Care.         119 

1  nsenne  dail  noldon  on  hiora  agen  geSlode  we^ndan.     Ac 

2  ic  Sa  sona  eft  me  self um  andwyrde,  ojid  cwaeS :  "  Hie  ne 

3  wendon  paette  aefre  m$nn  sceolden  swai 7  reccelease  weor- 

4  San,  <jnd  sio  lar  swse  oSfeallan ;    for  Ssere  wilnunga  hie 

5  hit  forleton,  <jnd  woldon  Sset  her  Sy  mara  wisdom   on 
e  londe  wsere  Sy  we  ma  geSeoda  cuSon." 

i  Da  gemunde  ic  hii  sio  aj  waes  ierest  on  Ebreisc  get5iode 
s  funden,  Qnd  eft,  Sa  hie  Creacas  geliornodon,  Sa  wendon 
o  hie  hie  on  hiora  agen  geSiode  ealle,  ond  eac  ealle  oSre 

10  bee.     Qnd  eft  Leedenware  swse  same,  siSSan  hie  hie  ge- 

11  liornodon,  hie  hie  wendon  ealla  Surh  wise  wealhstodas 

12  on   hiora  agen   geSiode.      Qnd   eac   ealla   oSra   Cristena 
is  Sloda  sumne  d»l  hiora  on  hiora  agen  geSlode  we_ndon. 
u  For  Sy  me  SyncS  b^tre,  gif  low  swee  tSyncft,  Saet  we  eac 

15  suuia  bee,  Sa  Se   nledbeSearfosta  sien   eallum   m^nnum 

16  to  wiotonne,16  Sset  we  Sa  on  Saet  geSlode  we_nden  Se  we 

17  ealle  gecnawan  masgen,  ond  gedon  swee  we  swlSe  eaSe 
is  magon  mid  Godes  fultnme,  gif  we  Sa  stilnesse  habbaS, 

19  Ssette   call   sio   gioguS   Se   nu   is   on   Angelcynne    f  riora 

20  mQnna,  Sara  Se  Sa  speda  hsebben  Saet  hie  Ssem  befeolan 

21  maegen,  sien  to  liornunga  oSfasste,  Sa  hwlle   Se   hie   to 

14.  Alfred  is  here  addressing  the  bishops  collectively,  and  hence 
uses  the  plural  low  (  =  eow) ,  not  Jjg. 

16.  Saet  we  85.     These  three  words  are  not  necessary  to  the 
sense.    They  constitute  the  figure  known  as  epanalepsis,  in  which 
"the  same  word  or  phrase  is  repeated  after  one  or  more  intervening 
words."     p5  is  the  pronominal  substitute  for  suma  bee. 

17.  Gedon  is  the  first  person  plural  subjunctive  (from  infinitive 
gedon).     It  and  w^nden  are  in  the  same  construction.    Two  things 
seem  "better"  to  Alfred:    (1)  that  we  translate,  etc.,   (2)  that  we 
cause,  etc. 

19-21.  BIO  gioguS  ...  is  ...  hie  .  .  .  sien.  Notice  how  the 
collective  noun,  gioguS,  singular  at  first  both  in  form  and  func- 
tion, gradually  loses  its  oneness  before  the  close  of  the  sentence  is 
reached,  and  becomes  plural.  The  construction  is  entirely  legitimate 


120  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  nanre  6<5erre  note  ne  maegen,  o5  <5one  first  Se  hie  wel 

2  cunnen  Englisc  gewrit  araedan :    Itere  mon  siSSan  f urSur 

3  on  Leedengeolode  3a  Se  mon  f  urSor  lajran  wille,  ond  to 

4  hierran  hade  don  wille.     Da  ic  <5a  gemunde  hu  slo  lar 

5  Lgedengeolodes    ser   olssum    afeallen    wses    giond    Angel- 

6  cynn,  §nd  Seali  monige  cuSon  Englisc  gewrit  arSdan,  t5a 
T  ongan  ic  ongemang  o^rum  mislicum  ond  manigfealduni 
s  bisgum  kisses  kynerices  6a  boc  w^ndan  on  ^nglisc  5e  is 
9  gen^mned  on  Laeden  "Pastoralis,"  oud  on  Englisc  "Hier- 

10  deboc,"  hwilum  word  be  worde,  hwilum  andgit  of  and- 

11  giete,  SW83  swae  ic  hie  geliornode  set  Plegmunde  minum 

12  sercebiscepe,  ond  aat  Assere  mmum  biscepe,  ond  set  Grim- 

13  bolde  mmum  maasseprioste,  gnd  set  lohanne  mmum  mses- 

14  sepreoste.     SiSSan  ic  hie  6a  geliornod  haefde,  swee  swie 

15  ic  hie  forstod,  ond  swae  ic  hie  andgitfulllcost  ar^ccean 

16  meahte,  ic  hie  on  Englisc  awe_nde ;  ond  to  selcum  biscep- 

17  stole  on  mmum  rice  wille  ane  ons^ndan ;  ond  on  telcre 
is  biS  an  asstel,  se  biS  on  fiftegum  mancessa.     Qnd  ic  be- 

19  biode  on  Godes  naman  Saet  nan  mon  6one  aestel  from 

20  SSre  bee  ne  do,  ne  5a  boc  from  Seem  mynstre ;  uncu6  hii 

21  l$nge  t5aer  swee  gelserede  biscepas  sien,  swae  swge  nu,  Gode 

22  8onc,  wel  hwser  siendon.     For  t5y  ic  wolde  ftsette  hie  eal- 


in  Mn.E.  Spanish  is  the  only  modern  language  known  to  me  that 
condemns  such  an  idiom  :  "  Spanish  ideas  of  congruity  do  not  permit 
a  collective  noun,  though  denoting  a  plurality,  to  be  accompanied  by 
a  plural  verb  or  adjective  in  the  same  clause"  (Ramsey,  Text-Book 
of  Modern  Spanish,  §  1452). 

2.   leere  mgn.     See  §  105,  1. 

11-13.  That  none  of  these  advisers  of  the  king,  except  Plegmond,  a 
Mercian,  were  natives,  bears  out  what  Alfred  says  about  the  scarcity 
of  learned  men  in  England  when  he  began  to  reign.  Asser,  to  whose 
Latin  Life  of  Alfred,  in  spite  of  its  mutilations,  we  owe  almost  all  of 
our  knowledge  of  the  king,  came  from  St.  David's  (in  Wales),  and 
was  made  Bishop  of  Sherborne. 


Alfred's  Preface  to  the  Pastoral  Care.         121 

1  neg  set  <5aere  stowe  wseren,  buton  se  biscep  hie  mid  him 

2  habban  wille,  o<5Se  hlo  hwser  to  laene  sie,  o85e  hwa  6$re 

3  bi  write. 

1  =  bisceop.  2  =  hwilce.  8  =  giu. 

4  =  For  all  words  with  io  (10),  consult  Glossary  under  eo  (eo). 


5  =  hlersumedon. 
e  =  sidu  (siodu). 
7  =  swa. 
8  =  anllpigne. 

9  =  hwilc. 
10  =  llefdon. 
11  =  m^nigu. 
12  =  nanwiht. 

is  —  swilce. 
14  =  spyrian. 
is  =  witena. 
16  =  witanne. 

1.  Translate  aet  Saere  stowe  by  each  in  its  place.  The  change 
from  plural  Me  (in  hie  .  .  .  weeren)  to  singular  hie  (in  the  clauses 
that  follow)  will  thus  be  prepared  for. 

2-3.  o58e  hwa  oSre  bi  write,  or  unless  some  one  icish  to  copy 
a  new  one  (write  thereby  another}. 


POETRY. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

I.    HISTORY. 

(a)    Old  English  Poetry  as  a  Whole. 

NORTHUMBRIA  was  the  home  of  Old  English  poetry. 
Beginning  with  Csedmon  and  his  school  A.D.  670, 
Northumbria  maintained  her  poetical  supremacy  till 
A.D.  800,  seven  years  before  which  date  the  ravages 
of  the  Danes  had  begun.  When  Alfred  ascended  the 
throne  of  Wessex  (871),  the  Danes  had  destroyed  the 
seats  of  learning  throughout  the  whole  of  Northumbria. 
As  Whitby  had  been  "  the  cradle  of  English  poetry," 
Winchester  (Alfred's  capital)  became  now  the  cradle 
of  English  prose ;  and  the  older  poems  that  had  sur- 
vived the  fire  and  sword  of  the  Vikings  were  translated 
from  the  original  Northumbrian  dialect  into  the  West 
Saxon  dialect.  It  is,  therefore,  in  the  West  Saxon 
dialect  that  these  poems1  have  come  down  to  us. 

Old  English  poetry  contains  in  all  only  about  thirty 
thousand  lines ;  but  it  includes  epic,  lyric,  didactic, 

1  This  does  not,  of  course,  include  the  few  short  poems  in  the  Chron- 
icle, or  that  portion  of  Genesis  (  Genesis  B)  supposed  to  have  been  put 
directly  into  West  Saxon  from  an  Old  Saxon  original.  There  still  re- 
main in  Northumbrian  the  version  of  Coedmon's  Hymn,  fragments  of 
the  Buthwell  Cross,  Bedels  Death- Song,  and  the  Leiden  Middle. 

122 


History.  123 

elegiac,  and  allegorical  poems,  together  with  war- 
ballads,  paraphrases,  riddles,  and  charms.  Of  the  five 
elegiac  poems  (Wanderer,  Seafarer,  Ruin,  Wife's  Com- 
plaint, and  Husband's  Message),  the  Wanderer  is  the  most 
artistic,  and  best  portrays  the  gloomy  contrast  between 
past  happiness  and  present  grief  so  characteristic  of 
the  Old  English  lyric. 

Old  English  literature  has  no  love  poems.  The 
central  themes  of  its  poets  are  battle  and  bereavement, 
with  a  certain  grim  resignation  on  the  part  of  the  hero 
to  the  issues  of  either.  The  movement  of  the  thought 
is  usually  abrupt,  there  being  a  noticeable  poverty  of 
transitional  particles,  or  connectives,  "which,"  says 
Ten  Brink,  "are  the  cement  of  sentence-structure." 

(6)   Beowulf. 

The  greatest  of  all  Old  English  poems  is  the  epic, 
Beoivulf.1  It  consists  of  more  than  three  thousand 
lines,  and  probably  assumed  approximately  its  present 
form  in  Northumbria  about  A.D.  700.  It  is  a  crystalli- 
zation of  continental  myths ;  and,  though  nothing  is 
said  of  England,  the  story  is  an  invaluable  index  to 
the  social,  political,  and  ethical  ideals  of  our  Germanic 
ancestors  before  and  after  they  settled  along  the 
English  coast.  It  is  most  poetical,  and  its  testimony 
is  historically  most  valuable,  in  the  character-portraits 
that  it  contains.  The  fatalism  that  runs  through  it, 

1  The  word  beowulf,  says  Grimm,  meant  originally  bee-wolf,  or  bee- 
enemy,  one  of  the  names  of  the  woodpecker.  Sweet  thinks  the  bear 
was  meant.  But  the  word  is  almost  certainly  a  compound  of  JBeow  (cf. 
O.E.  b§ow  =  grain) ,  a  Danish  demigod,  and  wulf  used  as  a  mere  suffix, 


124  Poetry. 

instead  of  making  the  characters  weak  and  less  human, 
serves  at  times  rather  to  dignify  and  elevate  them. 
"Fate,"  says  Beowulf  (1.  572),  recounting  his  battle 
with  the  sea-monsters,  "  often  saves  an  undoomed  man 
if  his  courage  hold  out." 

"  The  ethical  essence  of  this  poetry,"  says  Ten 
Brink,  "lies  principally  in  the  conception  of  manly 
virtue,  undismayed  courage,  the  stoical  encounter  with 
death,  silent  submission  to  fate,  in  the  readiness  to 
help  others,  in  the  clemency  and  liberality  of  the  prince 
toward  his  thanes,  and  the  self-sacrificing  loyalty  with 
which  they  reward  him." 

NOTE  1.  —  Many  different  interpretations  have  been  put  upon  the 
story  of  Beowulf  (for  argument  of  story,  see  texts).  Thus  Miillenhoff 
sees  in  Grendel  the  giant-god  of  the  storm-tossed  equinoctial  sea, 
while  Beowulf  is  the  Scandinavian  god  Freyr,  who  in  the  spring 
drives  back  the  sea  and  restores  the  land.  LaLstner  finds  the  proto- 
type of  Grendel  in  the  noxious  exhalations  that  rise  from  the  Frisian 
coast-marshes  during  the  summer  months  ;  Beowulf  is  the  wind-hero, 
the  autumnal  storm-god,  who  dissipates  the  effluvia. 


II.    STRUCTURE, 
(a)   Style. 

In  the  structure  of  Old  English  poetry  the  most 
characteristic  feature  is  the  constant  repetition  of  the 
idea  (sometimes  of  the  thought)  with  a  corresponding 
variation  of  phrase,  or  epithet.  When,  for  example, 
the  Queen  passes  into  the  banquet  hall  in  Beowulf,  she 
is  designated  at  first  by  her  name,  Wealhjsgow ;  she 
is  then  described  in  turn  as  cwen  HroSgares  (Hroth- 
gar's  queen),  gold-hroden  (the  gold-adorned},  friolic  wlf 


Structure.  125 

(the  noble  woman},  ides  Helminga  (the  Helmings1  lady}, 
beag-hroden  cwen  (the  ring-adorned  queen},  mode  gebun- 
gen  (the  high-spirited},  and  gold-hroden  freolicu  folc-cw§n 
(the  gold-adorned,  noble  folk-queen}. 

And  whenever  the  sea  enters  largely  into  the  poet's 
verse,  not  content  with  simple  (uncompounded)  words 
(such  as  see,  lagu,  holm,  stream,  mere,  etc.),  lie  will  Use 
numerous  other  equivalents  (phrases  or  compounds), 
such  as  wabema  gebind  (the  commingling  of  ivaves},  lagu- 
flod  (the  sea-jlood},  lagu-strset  (the  sea-street},  swan-rad 
(the  swan-road^),  etc.  These  compounds  are  usually 
nouns,  or  adjectives  and  participles  used  in  a  sense 
more  appositive  than  attributive. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  this  abundant  use  of 
compounds,  or  periphrastic  synonyms,  grows  out  of  the 
desire  to  repeat  the  idea  in  varying  language.  It  is  to 
be  observed,  also,  that  the  Old  English  poets  rarely 
make  any  studied  attempt  to  balance  phrase  against 
phrase  or  clause  against  clause.  Theirs  is  a  repetition 
of  idea,  rather  than  a  parallelism  of  structure. 

NOTE  1.  — It  is  impossible  to  tell  how  many  of  these  synonymous 
expressions  had  already  become  stereotyped,  and  were  used,  like  many 
of  the  epithets  in  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  purely  as  padding.  When,  for 
example,  the  poet  tells  us  that  at  the  most  critical  moment  Beowulf's 
sword  failed  him,  adding  in  the  same  breath,  Iren  air-god  (matchless 
blade),  we  conclude  that  the  bard  is  either  nodding  or  parroting. 

(6)   Meter. 
[Re-read  §  1O,  (3).] 
Primary  Stress. 

Old  English  poetry  is  composed  of  certain  rhythmi- 
cally ordered  combinations  of  accented  and  unaccented 


126  Poetry. 

syllables.  The  accented  syllable  (the  arsis)  is  usually 
long,  and  will  be  indicated  by  the  macron  with  the 
acute  accent  over  it  (/) ;  when  short,  by  the  breve  with 
the  same  accent  (o).  The  unaccented  syllable  or  syl- 
lables (the  thesis)  may  be  long  or  short,  and  will  be 
indicated  by  the  oblique  cross  (x). 

Secondary  Stress. 

A  secondary  accent,  or  stress,  is  usually  put  upon 
the  second  member  of  compound  and  derivative  nouns, 
adjectives,  and  adverbs.  This  will  be  indicated  by  the 
macron  with  the  grave  accent,  if  the  secondary  stress 
falls  on  a  long  syllable  (i) ;  by  the  breve  with  the 
same  accent,  if  the  secondary  stress  falls  on  a  short 
syllable  (i>).  Nouns : 

HroSgares  (^  i  x),  fgondgrapum  (/  i  x),  freomeegum  (i  i  x), 
East-D^na  (/  u  x),  Helipinga  (_c  i  x),  Scyldinga  (/  i  x),  anhaga 
(/  u  x),  Ecgjjeowes  (/  x  x),  sinc-fato  (^  u  x). 

Adjectives  : 1 

seghwylcne  (/  i  x),  Jjristhydig  (.£  i  x),  gold-hroden  (i  o  x), 
dreorigne  (/  i  x),  gyldenne  (jiix),  oSerne  (^  i  x),  gaestlicum 
(j:  i  x),  wynsume  (^  ^  x),  eenigne  (^  i  x). 

Adverbs : 2 

unsofte  (^  i  x),  heardlice  (^  i  x),  s^mninga  (^  i  x). 


1  It  will  be  seen  that  the  adjectives  are  chiefly  derivatives  in  -ig, 
-en,  -er,  -lie,  and  -sum. 

2  Most  of  the  adverbs  belonging  here  end  in  -lice,  -unga,  and 
-inga,  §  93,  (1),  (2)  :  such  words  as  eet-gsedere,  on-gean,  on-w£g, 
to-geanes,  to-middes,  etc.,  are  invariably  accented  as  here  indi- 
cated. 


Structure.  127 

The  Old  English  poets  place  also  a  secondary  accent 
upon  the  ending  of  present  participles  (-ende),  and 
upon  the  penultimate  of  weak  verbs  of  the  second  class 
(§  130),  provided  the  root-syllable  is  long.1  Present 
participles  : 

slaependne  (/  i  x),  wis-hycgende  (^  ^  i  x),  fleotendra  (^  i  x), 
hreosende  (j:  i  x). 

Weak  verbs  : 

swynsode  (^  u  x),  bancode  (^  ?>  x),  wanigean  (/  u  x),  sceaw- 
ian  (.1  u  x),  sceawige  (^  u  x),  hlifian  (^  i  x). 

Resolved  Stress. 

A  short  accented  syllable  followed  in  the  same  word 
by  an  unaccented  syllable  (usually  short  also)  is  equiv- 
alent to  one  long  accented  syllable  (J  x  =  /)  .  This  is 
known  as  a  resolved  stress,  and  will  be  indicated 
thus,  £*  : 

haeleSa  (ux  x),  guman  (ux),Gode(ux),  s^le-ful  (ux  x),  ides  (ux), 
fyrena  (ox  x),  ma5elode  (ox  u  x),  hogode  (ux  x),  maegen-^llen 
(ux  i  x),  hige-J)ihtigne  (ux  L  \  x),  Metudea  (ux  x),  lagulade  (ux  i  x), 
unlyfigendes  (^  ux  i  x),  biforan  (x  ux),  forjsolian  (x  vjx  x),  baSian 
(ux  x),  worolde  (u_  x). 

Resolution  of  stress  may  also  attend  secondary 
stresses  : 

sinc-fato  (/  ux),  dryht-sfle  (^  ux),  ferSloca  (^  ix),  forSwege 


1  It  will  save  the  student  some  trouble  to  remember  that  this  means 
long  by  nature  (llcodon),  or  long  by  position  (swynsode),  or  long 
by  resolution  of  stress  (maSelode),  —  see  next  paragraph. 


128  Poetry, 

The  Normal  Line. 

Every  normal  line  of  Old  English  poetry  has  four 
primary  accents,  two  in  the  first  half-line  and  two  in 
the  second  half-line.  These  half-lines  are  separated 
by  the  cesura  and  united  by  alliteration,  the  alliterative 
letter  being  found  in  the  first  stressed  syllable  of  the 
second  half-line.  This  syllable,  therefore,  gives  the  cue 
to  the  scansion  of  the  whole  line.  It  is  also  the  only 
alliterating  syllable  in  the  second  half-line.  The  first 
half-line,  however,  usually  has  two  alliterating  syllables, 
but  frequently  only  one  (the  ratio  being  about  three 
to  two  in  the  following  selections).  When  the  first 
half-line  contains  but  one  alliterating  syllable,  that 
syllable  marks  the  first  stress,  rarely  the  second.  The 
following  lines  are  given  in  the  order  of  their  frequency: 

(1)  Jjeer  waes  A^leSa  Al^ahtor  ;      hlyn  swynsode. 

(2)  .mode  gejsungen,      .m^do-ful  eetbEer. 

(3)  sOiia  pset  onfiiude      fyrena  hyrde. 

Any  initial  vowel  or  diphthong  may  alliterate  with 
any  other  initial  vowel  or  diphthong ;  but  a  consonant 
requires  the  same  consonant,  except  st,  sp,  and  so,  each 
of  which  alliterates  only  with  itself. 

Remembering,  now,  that  either  half-line  (especially 
the  second)  may  begin  with  several  unaccented  sylla- 
bles (these  syllables  being  known  in  types  A,  D,  and 
E  as  the  anacrusis),  but  that  neither  half-line  can  end 
with  more  than  one  unaccented  syllable,  the  student 
may  begin  at  once  to  read  and  properly  accentuate 
Old  English  poetry.  It  will  be  found  that  the  alliter- 


Structure.  129 

ative  principle  does  not  operate  mechanically,  but  that 
the  poet  employs  it  for  the  purpose  of  emphasizing  the 
words  that  are  really  most  important.     Sound  is  made 
.  subservient  to  sense. 

When,  from  the  lack  of  alliteration,  the  student  is 
in  doubt  as  to  what  word  to  stress,  let  him  first  get  the 
exact  meaning  of  the  line,  and  then  put  the  emphasis 
on  the  word  or  words  that  seem  to  bear  the  chief  bur- 
den of  the  poet's  thought. 

NOTE  1.  —  A  few  lines,  rare  or  abnormal  in  their  alliteration  or 
lack  of  alliteration,  may  here  be  noted.  In  the  texts  to  be  read, 
there  is  one  line  with  no  alliteration  :  Wanderer  58 ;  three  of  the 
type  a---b  |  a---b:  Beowulf 654,  830,  2746;  one  of  the  type  a---a  \  b---a: 
Beowulf  2744  ;  one  of  the  type  a---a  \  b---c  :  Beowulf  2718 ;  and  one 
of  the  type  a—b  \  c—a :  Beowulf  2738. 

The  Five  Types. 

By  an  exhaustive  comparative  study  of  the  metrical 
unit  in  Old  English  verse,  the  half-line,  Professor 
Eduard  Sievers,1  of  the  University  of  Leipzig,  has 
shown  that  there  are  only  five  types,  or  varieties, 

1  Sievers'  two  articles  appeared  in  the  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der 
deutschen  Sprache  und  Literatur,  Vols.  X  (1885)  and  XII  (1887). 
A  brief  summary,  with  slight  modifications,  is  found  in  the  same 
author's  Altgermanische  Metrik,  pp.  120-144  (1893). 

Before  attempting  to  employ  Sievers'  types,  the  student  would  do 
well  to  read  several  pages  of  Old  English  poetry,  taking  care  to  accent- 
uate according  to  the  principles  already  laid  down.  In  this  way  his 
ear  will  become  accustomed  to  the  rhythm  of  the  line,  and  he  will  see 
more  clearly  that  Sievers'  work  was  one  primarily  of  systematization. 
Sievers  himself  says :  "  I  had  read  Old  English  poetry  for  years  exactly 
as  I  now  scan  it,  and  long  before  I  had  the  slightest  idea  that  what 
I  did  instinctively  could  be  formulated  into  a  system  of  set  rules." 
(Altgermanische  Metrik,  Vorwort,  p.  10.) 

E 


130  Poetry. 

employed.  These  he  classifies  as  follows,  the  perpen- 
dicular line  serving  to  separate  the  so-called  feet,  or 
measures : 

1.        A     ^x  U  x 


2.  B 

3.  C 


It  will  be  seen  (1)  that  each  half -line  contains  two, 
and  only  two,  feet;  (2)  that  each  foot  contains  one, 
and  only  one,  primary  stress ;  (3)  that  A  is  trochaic, 
B  iambic  ;  (4)  that  C  is  iambic-trochaic ;  (5)  that  D 
and  E  consist  of  the  same  feet  but  in  inverse  order. 

The  Five  Types  Illustrated. 

[All  the  illustrations,  as  hitherto,  are  taken  from  the  texts  to  be  read. 
The  figures  prefixed  indicate  whether  first  or  second  half-line  is  cited. 
B  =  Beowulf ;  W  =  Wanderer.] 

1.     TYPE  A,  j:  x  |  L  x 

Two  or  more  unaccented  syllables  (instead  of  one) 
may  intervene  between  the  two  stresses,  but  only  one 
may  follow  the  last  stress.  If  the  thesis  in  either  foot 
is  the  second  part  of  a  compound  it  receives,  of  course, 
a  secondary  stress. 

(2)  ful  gesealde,  B.  616,  ^  x  |  _:  x 

(1)  widre  gewindan,  B.  764,  L  x  x  |  ^  x 

(I)1  Gemunde  ]?a  se  goda,  B.  759,  x  |  i.  x  x  x  |  L  x 

(I)1  swylce  he  on  ealder-dagum,  B.  758,       xxxx|^x|ux 

(1)  yjjde  swa  Jnsne  eardgeard,  W.  85,      L  x  x  x  x  |  L  i 

(1)  wis-fsest  wordum,  B.  627,  _:  x  |  ^  x 

(1)  gryre-leoS  galan,  B.  787,  £x  i  |  u  x 

(2)  spmod  aetgsedre,  W.  39,  ox  x  |  j:  x 

1  The  first  perpendicular  marks  the  limit  of  the  anacrusis. 


Structure.  131 

(1)  duguSe  9nd  geogoSe.  B.  622,  £x  x  x  |  £x  x 

(1)  feeger  fold-bold,  B.  774,  i  x  |  jl  l 

(1)  atellc  ?gesa,  B.  785,  £<  i  |  6*  x 

(2)  goldwine  mlnne,  W.  22,  -i  ux  |  .i  x 
(1)  §gesan  Jjeon  [>*Jrihan:  §  118J,  B.  2737,  £x  x  |  •_  x 

NOTE.  —  Rare  forms  of  A  are  _:  i  x  |  j;  x  (does  not  occur  in  texts), 
L  i  x  |  L  i  (occurs  once,  B.  781  (1)),  and  ^  x  i  |  L  x  (once,  B.  2743  (1)). 

* 

2.  TYPE  B,  x  j:  |  x  L 

Two,  but  not  more  than  two,  unaccented  syllables 
may  intervene  between  the  stresses.  The  type  of  B 
most  frequently  occurring  is  x  x  ^  |  x  _: 

(1)  qnd  J?a  freolic  wif,  B.  616,  x  x  j: 

(2)  he  on  lust  ge>eah,  B.  619,  x  x  ^ 
(2)  f>a  se  aeSeling  glong,  B.  2716,  x  x  6-> 
(2)  seah  on  ^nta  geweorc,  B.  2718,  x  x  ^ 
(1)  ofer  floda  genipu,  B.  2809,  x  x  ^ 

(1)  forjjam  me  witan  ne  peart,  B.  2742,  x  x  x  .: 

(2)  J>aes  )?e  hire  se  willa  gelamp,  B.  627,   x  x  x  x  x  z 
(1)  forjjon  ne  maeg  weorjjan  wis,  W.  64,        x  x  x  x  L 
(1)  Neefre  ic  eenegum  [=3en'gum]  men,  B.656,  x  x  x  L 

NOTE.  —  In  the  last  half-line  Sievers  substitutes  the  older  form 
eengum,  and  supposes  elision  of  the  e  in  Naefre  ( —  Naefr-ic : 

X  X  —   |   X  ^). 

3.  TYPE  C,  x  L  \  ±  x 

The  conditions  of  this  type  are  usually  satisfied  by 
compound  and  derivative  words,  and  the  second  stress 
(not  so  strong  as  the  first)  is  frequently  on  a  short 
syllable.  The  two  arses  rarely  alliterate.  As  in  B, 
two  unaccented  syllables  in  the  first  thesis  are  more 
common  than  one. 


132  Poetry. 

(1)  beet  heo  on  senigne,  B.  628,  x  x  x  JL  \  _L  x 

(1)  beet  ic  anunga,  B.  635,  x  x  ^  \  ^  x 

(2)  code  gold-hroden,  B.  641,  x  x  L  \  6  x 
(1)  gemyne  niaerSo.  B.  660,  x  ux  |  .:  x 

(1)  on  bisse  nieodu-healle.  B.  639,  x  x  x  ux  |  _c  x 

(2)  get  brimes  nosan,  B.  2804,  x  ux  |  u  x 
(2)  eet  Wealhbeon  [  =  -beowan],  B.  630,  x  L  \  L  x 
(1)  geond  lagulade,  W.  3,  x  ux  |  L  x 

(1)  Swa  cweeS  eardstapa,  W.  6,  x  x  L  \  6  x 

(2)  eala  byrnwiga,  W.  94,  x  x  ^.  |  u  x 
(2)  no  bser  fela  bringeS,  W.  54,  x  x  £x  |  jc  x 


4.     TYPE  D, 

D2  JL  |  ^  x  i 

Both  types  of  D  may  take  one  unaccented  syllable 
between  the  two  primary  stresses  (/  x  |  L  ^  x,  ^  x  |  j:  x  i). 
The  secondary  stress  in  D1  falls  usually  on  the  second 
syllable  of  a  compound  or  derivative  word,  and  this 
syllable  (as  in  C)  is  frequently  short. 

(a)  DI  L  |  ^  i  x 

(1)  cwen  HroSgares,  B.  614,  •. 

(2)  dsel  jeghwylcne,  B.  622,  ^ 

(1)  Beowulf  maSelode,  B.  632,  ^  x 

(2)  slat  unwearnum,  B.  742,  _i 
(1)  wrabra  -wraelsleahta,  W.  7,                               ^  x 
(1)  wod  vrintercearig  [=  wint'rcearig],  W.  24,  ^ 
(1)  sohte  sfle  dreorig,  W.  25,                                .i  x 
(1)  ne  sohte  searo-niSas,  B.  2739,                   x  |  ^  x 

NOTE.  —  There  is  one  instance  in  the  texts  (B.  613,  (1))  of  apparent 
.i  x  x  |  L  I,  x  :  word  weeron  wynsume.  (The  triple  alliteration  has 
no  significance.  The  sense,  besides,  precludes  our  stressing  weeron.) 
The  difficulty  is  avoided  by  bringing  the  line  under  the  A  type: 


Structure. 


133 


(2)  ForS  near  aetstop,  B.  746, 

(2)  eorl  furSur  stop,  B.  762, 

(2)  Denum  eallum  wearS,  B.  768, 

(1)  grette  Geata  leod,  B.  626, 

(1)  aenig  yrfe-weard,  B.  2732, 

(1)  hreosan  brim  and  snaw,  \V.  48, 

(2)  swimmaS  eft  on  weg,  W.  53, 


Very  rarely  is  the  thesis  in  the  second  foot  expanded. 

(2)     begn  ungemete  till,  B.  2722,  L  \  L  x  x  x  i 

(1)     hrusan  heolster  biwrah,  W.  23,      ^  x  |  ^  x  x  i 


6.     TYPE  E, 


The   secondary   stress    in   E1   falls  frequently  on  a 
short  syllable,  as  in  D1. 


(a)    I 

(1)  wyrmlicum  fan,  W.  98, 

(2)  medo-ful  setbaer,  B.  625, 
(1)  see-bat  geseet,  B.634, 

(1)  sige-folca  sweg,  B.  645, 

(2)  Nor3-Denum  stod,  B.  784, 

(1)  fSond-grapum  feest,  B.  637, 

(2)  wyn  eal  gedreas,  W.  36, 
(2)  feor  oft  gemgn,  W.  90, 


-  u  X 

^.  1  X 

—  —  X 

.   ^  1  X 


As  in  D2,  the  thesis  in  the  first  foot  is  very  rarely 
expanded. 

(1)     win-semes  geweald,  B.  655,  L  i  x  x  |  L 

(1)     Hafa  nu  9nd  geheald,  B.  659,  ux  i  x  x  |  ^ 

(1)     searo-p9ncum  besmiSod,  B.  776,         ux  i.  x  x  |  ox 


134  Poetry. 

NOTE.  —  Our  ignorance  of  Old  English  sentence-stress  makes  it 
impossible  for  us  to  draw  a  hard-and-fast  line  in  all  cases  between  D2 
and  E1.  For  example,  in  these  half-lines  (already  cited), 

wyn  eal  gedreas 
feor  oft  gemQn 
For3  near  aetstop 

if  we  throw  a  strong  stress  on  the  adverbs  that  precede  their  verbs, 
the  type  is  D2.  Lessen  the  stress  on  the  adverbs  and  increase  it  on 
the  verbs,  and  we  have  E1.  The  position  of  the  adverbs  furnishes 
no  clue  ;  for  the  order  of  words  in  -Old  English  was  governed  not 
only  by  considerations  of  relative  emphasis,  but  by  syntactic  and 
euphonic  considerations  as  well. 


(6) 

This  is  the  rarest  of  all  types.  It  does  not  occur 
in  the  texts,  there  being  but  one  instance  of  this  type 
(1.  2437  (2)),  and  that  doubtful,  in  the  whole  of 
Beowulf. 

Abnormal  Lines. 

The  lines  that  fall  under  none  of  the  five  types 
enumerated  are  comparatively  few.  They  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  (1)  hypermetrical  lines,  and 
(2)  defective  lines. 

(1)    HYPERMETRICAL  LINES. 

Each  hypermetrical  half-line  has  usually  three 
stresses,  thus  giving  six  stresses  to  the  whole  line 
instead  of  two.  These  lines  occur  chiefly  in  groups, 
and  mark  increased  range  and  dignity  in  the  thought. 
Whether  the  half-line  be  first  or  second,  it  is  usually 
of  the  A  type  without  anacrusis.  To  this  type  belong 
the  last  five  lines  of  the  Wanderer.  Lines  92  and  93 
are  also  unusually  long,  but  not  hypermetrical.  The 


Structure.  135 

first  half-line  of  65  is  hypermetrical,  a  fusion  of  A  and 
C,  consisting  of  (/  x  x  x  J_  |  ^  x). 

(2)    DEFECTIVE  LINES. 

The  only  defective  lines  in  the  texts  are  B.  748  and 
2715  (the  second  half-line  in  each).  As  they  stand, 
these  half-lines  would  have  to  be  scanned  thus : 

rashte  ongean 
bealo-nlS  weoll 

Sievers  emends  as  follows : 

raehte  togeanes  _:  x  x  |  i.  x         =  A 

bealo-niSe  weoll          ux  i  x  |  L  —  E1 

These  defective  half-lines  are  made  up  of  syntactic 
combinations  found  on  almost  every  page  of  Old  Eng- 
lish prose.  That  they  occur  so  rarely  in  poetry  is 
strong  presumptive  evidence,  if  further  evidence  were 
needed,  in  favor  of  the  adequacy  of  Sievers'  five-fold 
classification. 

NOTE.  —  All  the  lines  that  could  possibly  occasion  any  difficulty  to 
the  student  have  been  purposely  cited  as  illustrations  under  the  dif- 
ferent types.  If  these  are  mastered,  the  student  will  find  it  an  easy 
matter  to  scan  the  lines  that  remain. 


SELECTIONS     FOR     READING. 


VI.   EXTRACTS  FEOM  BEOWULF. 

THE  BANQUET  IN  HEOROT.       [Lines  612-662.] 

[The  Heyne-Socin  text  has  been  closely  followed.  I  have  attempted 
no  original  emendations,  but  have  deviated  from  the  Heyne-Socin  edition 
in  a  few  cases  where  the  Grein-Wiilker  text  seemed  to  give  the  better 
reading. 

The  argument  preceding  the  first  selection  is  as  follows :  Hrothgar, 
king  of  the  Danes,  or  Scyldings,  elated  by  prosperity,  builds  a  magnificent 
hall  in  which  to  feast  his  retainers ;  but  a  monster,  Grendel  by  name, 
issues  from  his  fen-haunts,  and  night  after  night  carries  off  thane  after 
thane  from  the  banqueting  hall.  For  twelve  years  these  ravages  continue. 
At  last  Beowulf,  nephew  of  Hygelac,  king  of  the  Geats  (a  people  of  South 
Sweden),  sails  with  fourteen  chosen  companions  to  Dane-land,  and  offers 
his  services  to  the  aged  Hrothgar.  "  Leave  me  alone  in  the  hall  to-night," 
says  Beowulf.  Hrothgar  accepts  Beowulf's  proffered  aid,  and  before  the 
dread  hour  of  visitation  comes,  the  time  is  spent  in  wassail.  The  banquet 
scene  follows.] 

1  pair  wses  haeleba  hleahtor,     hlyn  swynsode, 

2  word  wseron  wynsume.     Eode  Wealhbeow  for<5, 

3  cwen  HroSgares,     cynna  gemyndig ; 

4  grette  gold-hroden     guman  on  healle,  [615] 

5  Qnd  ba  f reollc  \vlf     ful  gesealde 

6  serest  East-D^na     ebel-wearde, 

7  baed  hine  bliftne     set  bgere  beor-b^ge, 
s  leoduin  leofne  ;     he  on  lust  gebeah 

9  symbel  $nd  s^le-ful,     sige-rof  kyning.  [620] 

10  Ymb-eode  ba    ides  Helminga 

11  dugutSe  ond  geogoSe     deel  aeghwylcne, 

136 


Extracts  from  Beowulf.  137 

1  sinc-fato  sealde,     o$  feet  seel  alamp 

2  feet  hio1  Beowulfe,     beag-hroden  cwen, 

3  mode  gef  ungen,    medo  2-f ul  eetbeer ;  [625J 

4  grette  Geata  leod,     Gode  fancode 

5  wis-feest  wordum,     fses  fe  hire  se  willa  gelamp, 
e  feet  heo  on  senigne     eorl  gelyfde 

7  fyrena  frofre.     He  feet  ful  gef eah, 

s  wael-reow  wiga,     set  Wealhfeon,  [eso] 

9  ond  fa  gyddode     gu^e  gefysed  ; 

10  Beowulf  maSelode,     beam  Ecgfeowes  : 

11  "  Ic  faet  hogode,     fa  ic  on  holm  gestah, 

12  see-bat  gesaet     mid  rnmra  s^cga  gedriht, 

13  feet  ic  anunga     eowra  leoda  [635] 

14  willan  geworhte,     otSSe  on  wael  crunge 

15  feond-grapum  fsest.     Ic  gefre_mman  sceal 

16  eorllc  ^llen,     o35e  ^nde-dseg 

IT  on  fisse  meodu2-healle     mlnne  gebidan." 

is  pam  wife  fa  word     wel  licodon,  [6*oj 

19  gilp-cwide  Geates ;     eode  gold-hroden 

20  freolicu  folc-cwen     to  hire  frean  sittan. 

21  pa  wees  eft  swa  ser     inne  on  healle 

22  fry5-word  sprecen,3     feod  on  sffilum, 

23  sige-folca  sweg,     of  feet  s^mninga  [645] 

1.  sinc-fato  sealde.  Banning  (Die  epischen  Formeln  im  Beo- 
wulf} shows  that  the  usual  translation,  gave  costly  gifts,  must  be 
given  up ;  or,  at  least,  that  the  costly  gifts  are  nothing  more  than 
beakers  of  mead.  The  expression  is  an  epic  formula  for  passing  the 
cup. 

16-17.  ^nde-daeg  .  .  .  mlnne.  This  unnatural  separation  of 
noun  and  possessive  is  frequent  in  O.E.  poetry,  but  almost  unknown 
in  prose. 

19-20.  eode  .  .  .  sittan.  The  poet  might  have  employed  to 
sittanne  (§108,  (1))  ;  but  in  poetry  the  infinitive  is  often  used  for 
the  gerund.  Alfred  himself  uses  the  infinitive  or  the  gerund  to 
express  purpose  after  gan,  ggngan,  cuman,  and  sf ndan. 


138  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  sunu  Healfd^nes     secean  wolde 

2  sefen-reeste  ;     wiste  paim  ahlsecan4 
s  to  paim  heah-seje     hilde  gepinged, 

4  sifrSan  hie  sunnan  leoht    geseon  ne  meahton 

5  otSSe  nipende    niht  ofei-  ealle,  [650J 

6  scadu-helma  gesceapu    scrftian  cwoman,6 

7  wan  under  wolcnum.     Werod  eall  aras  ; 

8  grette  fa  giddum    gurna  66erne 

9  HroSgar  Beowulf,     ond  him  hgel  abead, 

10  win-semes  geweald,     ond  fset  word  acwse'S  :        [655] 

11  "  Nsef re  ic  eenegum 6  m^n     eer  alyfde, 

12  sifr&an  ic  hond  ond  rond     h^bban  mihte, 
is  SryJ?-aern  D§na     buton  ]>e  nu  J>a. 

14  Hafa  nu  ond  geheald     husa  selest, 

15  gemyne  mserfo,7     msegen-^llen  cy5,  [eeo] 

16  waca  wi5  wraSum.     Ne  bi8  ]>e  wilna  gad, 
IT  gif  )>u  J>aet  ^llen-weorc    aldre 8  gedigest." 


1  =  heo. 
2  =  medu-. 
8  =  gesprecen. 

4  =  aglsecan. 
5  =  cwomon. 
6  =  senigum. 

7  =  mser^e  (ace.  sing.). 
8  =  ealdre  (instr.  sing.  ) 

2-6.  wiste  .  .  .  cwoman.  A  difficult  passage,  even  with 
Thorpe's  inserted  ne  ;  but  there  is  no  need  of  putting  a  period  after 
ge]?inged,  or  of  translating  oSSe  by  and:  He  (Hrothgar)  knew  that 
battle  was  in  store  (gejjinged)  for  the  monster  in  the  high  hall,  after 
[=  as  soon  as]  they  could  no  longer  see  the  s?m's  light,  or  [=  that  is] 
after  night  came  darkening  over  all,  and  shadowy  figures  stalking. 
The  subject  of  cwoman  [=  cwomon]  is  niht  and  gesceapu. 

The  student  will  note  that  the  infinitive  (scriSan)  is  here  employed 
as  a  present  participle  after  a  verb  of  motion  (cwoman).  This  con- 
struction with  cuman  is  frequent  in  prose  and  poetry.  The  infinitive 
expresses  the  kind  of  motion :  ic  com  drifan  =  7  came  driving. 


Extracts  from  Beowulf.  139 

THE  FIGHT  BETWEEN  BEOWULF  AND  GRENDEL.  [Lines  740-837.] 

[The  warriors  all  retire  to  rest  except  Beowulf.  Grendel  stealthily 
enters  the  hall.  From  his  eyes  gleams  "  a  luster  unlovely,  likest  to  fire." 
The  combat  begins  at  once.] 

1  Ne  bset  se  aglaeca    yldan  bohte,  [740] 

2  ac  he  gefeng  hrafte     forman  siSe 

3  slaependne  rinc,     slat  unwearnum, 

4  bat  ban-locan,     blod  edrum  dranc, 

5  syn-snaedum  swealh  ;     sona  hsefde 

e  unlyfigendes     eal  gefeormod  [746] 

7  fet  ond  folma.     ForS  near  setstop, 

8  nam  ba  mid  handa     hige-bihtigne 

9  rinc  on  rseste  ;     rsehte  ongean 

10  feond  mid  folme ;     he  onfeng  hrabe 

11  inwit-bancum    $nd  wiS  earm  gesset.  [7601 

12  Sona  bset  onfunde     fyrena  hyrde, 
is  bset  he  ne  mette     middan-geardes, 
w  eorSan  sceatta,     on  ^Iran  m^n 

is  mund-gripe  maran  ;     he  on  mode  wearft 

1.  Jjaet,  the  direct  object  of  yldan,  refers  to  the  contest  about 
to  ensue.  Beowulf,  in  the  preceding  lines,  was  wondering  how  it 
would  result. 

7.  aetstop.  The  subject  of  this  verb  and  of  nam  is  Grendel ; 
the  subject  of  the  three  succeeding  verbs  (raehte,  onfeng,  gesaet)  is 
Beowulf. 

12-13.  The  O.E.  poets  are  fond  of  securing  emphasis  or  of  stimu- 
lating interest  by  indirect  methods  of  statement,  by  suggesting  more 
than  they  affirm.  This  device  often  appears  in  their  use  of  negatives 
(ne,  1. 13;  p.  140,  1.  3;  no,  p.  140,  1.  1),  and  in  the  unexpected  promi- 
nence that  they  give  to  some  minor  detail  usually  suppressed  because 
understood  ;  as  where  the  narrator,  wishing  to  describe  the  terror 
produced  by  Grendel's  midnight  visits  to  Heorot,  says  (11. 138-139), 
"Then  was  it  easy  to  find  one  who  elsewhere,  more  commodiously, 
sought  rest  for  himself."  It  is  hard  to  believe  that  the  poet  saw 
nothing  humorous  in  this  point  of  view. 


Selections  for  Reading. 

1  forht,  on  ferh<5e  ;     no  J>y  air  fram  meahte.  [755] 

2  Hyge  waes  him  hin-fus,     wolde  on  heolster  fleon, 

3  secan  deofla  gedraeg ;     ne  waes  his  drohtoS  bair, 

4  swylce  he  on  ealder J -dagum     air  gemette. 

5  Gemunde  ba  se  goda     maig  Higelaces 

6  aifen-spriBce,     up-lang  astod  [760] 

7  <jnd  him  faeste  wiftfeng ;     fingras  burston  ; 

8  eoten  waes  ut-weard  ;     eorl  furfur  stop. 

9  Mynte  se  msera,     hwair  he  meahte  swa, 

10  widre  gewindan     ond  on  weg  banon 

11  fleon  on  f^n-hopu ;     wiste  his  fingra  geweald     [765] 

12  on  grames  grapum.     paet  waes  geocor  si5, 
is  J>aet  se  hearm-scafa     to  Heorute 2  ateah. 

H  Dryht-s^le  dynede  ;     D^num  eallum  wearS 

15  ceaster-buendum,     cenra  gehwylcum, 

16  eorlum  ealu-scerwen.     Yrre  wseron  begen  [770] 


1.  no  ...  meahte,  none  the  sooner  could  he  away.  The  omission 
of  a  verb  of  motion  after  the  auxiliaries  niagan.  motan,  sculan,  and 
willan  is  very  frequent.  Cf.  Beowulf's  last  utterance,  p.  147,  1. 17. 

14.  The  lines  that  immediately  follow  constitute  a  fine  bit  of 
description  by  indication  of  effects.     The  two  contestants  are  with- 
drawn from  our  sight ;  but  we  hear  the  sound  of  the  fray  crashing 
through  the  massive  old  hall,  which  trembles  as  in  a  blast ;  we  see 
the  terror  depicted  on  the  faces  of  the  Danes  as  they  listen  to  the 
strange  sounds  that  issue  from  their  former  banqueting  hall ;   by 
these  sounds  we,  too,  measure  the  progress  and  alternations  of  the 
combat.     At  last  we  hear  only  the  "terror-lay"  of  Grendel,  "lay  of 
the  beaten,"  and  know  that  Beowulf  has  made  good  his  promise  at 
the  banquet  (gilp  gelsested). 

15.  cenra  gehwylcum.     The  indefinite  pronouns  (§  77)  may  be 
used  as  adjectives,  agreeing  in  case  with  their  nouns ;  but  they  fre- 
quently, as  here,  take  a  partitive  genitive  :  anra  gehwylcum,  to  each 
one  (=  to  each  of  ones)  ;  eenige  (instrumental)  )?inga,  for  any  thing 
(  =  /or  any  of  things')  ;  on  healfa  gehwone,  into  halves  (=  into  each 
of  halves)  ;  ealra  dogra  gehwam,  every  day  (=  on  each  of  all  days)  ; 
uhtna  gehwylce,  every  morning  (—on  each  of  mornings'). 


Extracts  from  Beowulf.  141 

1  repe  ren-weardas.     Recced  hlynsode ; 

2  pa  wees  wundor  micel,     paet  se  wm-s^le 

3  wrShsefde  heapo-deorum,    paet  he  on  hrusan  ne  feol, 

4  faeger  fold-bold ;     ac  he  fees  faeste  waes 

5  innan  Qnd  titan     iren-b^ndum  [775] 
e  searo-poncum  besmiSod.     paar  fram  sylle  abeag 

7  medu-b^nc  monig,     mine  gefraege, 

s  golde  geregnad,     peer  J>a  graman  wimnon ; 

9  }>aes  ne  wendon  eer     witan  Scyldinga, 

10  paet  hit  a  mid  gemete     manna  Snig,  [780] 

11  betllc  oud  ban-fag,     tobrecan  meahte, 

12  listum  tolucan,     nympe  liges  faeSm 

13  swulge  on  swafule.     Sweg  up  astag 
u  niwe  geneahhe ;     NorS-D^num  stod 

15  atelic  $gesa,     anra  gehwylcura,  [785] 

16  para  pe  of  wealle     wop  gehyrdon, 

17  gryre-leoS  galan     Godes  Qndsacan, 
is  sige-leasne  sang,     sar  wanigean 

19  h^lle  hsefton.3    Heold  hine  faeste, 

20  se  pe  manna  wees     maegene  strongest  [790] 

21  on  peem  daege     pysses  llfes. 

22  Nolde  eorla  hleo     senige  pinga 

23  pone  cwealm-cuman     cwicne  forlgetan, 

24  ne  his  llf-dagas     leoda  aenigum 


10.  Notice  that  hit,  the  object  of  tobrecan,  stands  for  win-Bfle, 
which  is  masculine.  See  p.  39,  Note  2.  Manna  is  genitive  after 
gemete,  not  after  aeiiig. 

17-19.  gryre-leoS  .  .  .  haefton  [=  heeftan].  Note  that  verbs  of 
hearing  and  seeing,  as  in  Mn.E.,  may  be  followed  by  the  infinitive. 
They  heard  God's  adversary  sing  (galan)  .  .  .  helVs  captive  bewail 
(•wanigean).  Had  the  present  participle  been  used,  the  effect  would 
have  been,  as  in  Mn.E.,  to  emphasize  the  agent  (the  subject  of  the 
infinitive)  rather  than  the  action  (the  infinitive  itself). 


142  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  nytte  tealde.     pier  genehost  braegd  [795] 

2  eorl  Beowulfes     ealde  lafe, 

8  wolde  frea-drihtnes     feorh  ealgian, 

4  maeres  peodnes,     ftser  hie  meahton  swa. 

5  Hie  (5aet  ne  wiston,     fa  hie  gewin  drugon, 

6  heard-hicgende     hilde-m^cgas,  [soo] 

7  §nd  on  healfa  gehwone     heawan  }>6hton, 

8  sawle  secan :     pone  syn-sca<5an 
»  senig  ofer  eorSan     irenna  cyst, 

10  gup-billa  nan,     gretan  nolde ; 

11  ac  he  sige-wtepnum     forsworen  hsefde,  [805] 

12  §cga  gehwylcre.     Scolde  his  aldor4-gedal 
is  on  Saem  dsege     fysses  lifes 

14  earmllc  wurSan 5     ond  se  ^llor-gast 
is  on  feonda  geweald     feor  siftian. 

16  pa  fset  onfunde,     se  ]>e  fela  ieror  [sio] 

17  modes  myrSe     manna  cynne 

is  fyrene  gefr^mede     (he  wees  fag  wi8  God), 

19  faet  him  se  lic-hgina     Isestan  nolde, 

20  ac  hine  se  modega6    mgeg  Hygelaces 

21  haefde  be  honda ;     waes  gehwaeper  oSrum  [815] 

22  lifigende  laft.     Llc-sar  gebad 

23  atol  seglseca7;     him  on  eaxle  wear8 

1-2.  J>eer  .  .  .  lafe.  Beowulf's  followers  now  seem  to  have 
seized  their  swords  and  come  to  his  aid,  not  knowing  that  Grendel, 
having  forsworn  war-weapons  himself,  is  proof  against  the  best  of 
swords.  Then  many  an  earl  of  Beowulf  s  (=  an  earl  of  B.  very  often) 
brandished  his  sword.  That  no  definite  earl  is  meant  is  shown  by  the 
succeeding  hie  meahton  instead  of  he  meahte.  See  p.  110,  Note. 

5.  They  did  not  know  this  (Seet),  while  they  were  fighting ;  but 
the  first  Hie  refers  to  the  warriors  who  proffered  help  ;  the  second 
hie,  to  the  combatants,  Beowulf  and  Grendel.  In  apposition  with 
3aet,  stands  the  whole  clause,  Jjone  synscaSan  (object  of  gretan) 
.  .  .  nolde.  The  second,  or  conjunctional,  Sset  is  here  omitted  before 
Jjone.  See  p.  112,  note  on  11.  18-19. 


Extracts  from  Beowulf.  143 

1  syn-dolh  sweotol ;     seonowe  onsprungon ; 

2  burston  ban-locan.     Beowtilfe  wearS 

3  gu$-hre(5  gyfe<5e.     Scolde  Gr^ndel  bonan  [820] 

4  feorh-seoc  fleon     under  f^n-hleoSu,8 

5  secean  wyn-leas  wlc ;     wiste  be  geornor, 
e  baet  his  aldres 9  wees     §nde  gegongen, 

7  dogera  daeg-rim.     D^num  eallum  wearft 

s  aefter  bam  wael-rsese     willa  geluinpen.  [825] 

9  Hsefde  fa  gefgelsod,     se  J>e  ser  feorran  com, 

10  snotor  gnd  swy6-ferli5,     s^le  HroSgares, 

11  gen^red  Avi6  niSe.     Niht-weorce  gefeh, 

12  ^llen-mserfum ;     hsef de  East-D^num 

is  Geat-ni^cga  leod    gilp  gelgested ;  [sso] 

14  swylce  oncytSSe     ealle  gebette, 

15  inwid-sorge,     fe  hie  ger  drugon 

16  ond  for  )>rea-nyduin     folian  scoldon, 
n  torn  unlytel.     pset  wses  tacen  sweotol, 

is  sy<5<5an  hilde-deor    hond  al^gde,  [sss] 

19  earm  ond  eaxle     (peer  wses  eal  geador 

20  Gr^ndles  grape)     under  geapne  hrof. 

1  =  ealdor-.  *  =  ealdor-.  7  =  aglieca. 

2  =  Heorote.  5  =  weorSan.  8  —  -hliiSu. 

3  =  hseftan.  6  =  modiga.  9  =  ealdres. 

BEOWULF  FATALLY  WOUNDED.     [Lines  2712-2752.] 

[Hrothgar,  in  his  gratitude  for  the  great  victory,  lavishes  gifts  upon 
Beowulf;  but  Grendel's  mother  must  he  reckoned  with.  Beowulf  finds 
her  at  the  sea-hottom,  and  after  a  desperate  struggle  slays  her.  Hrothgar 
again  pours  treasures  into  Beowulf's  lap.  Beowulf,  having  now  accom- 
plished his  mission,  returns  to  Sweden.  After  a  reign  of  fifty  years,  he 
goes  forth  to  meet  a  fire-spewing  dragon  that  is  ravaging  his  kingdom. 
In  the  struggle  Beowulf  is  fatally  wounded.  Wiglaf,  a  loyal  thane,  is 
with  him.] 

20.   grape  =  genitive  singular,  feminine,  after  eal. 


144  Selections  for  Heading. 

1  pa  sio 1  wund  ongon, 

2  fe  him  se  eorS-draca    eer  geworhte, 

3  swelan  $nd  swellan.     He  baet  sona  onfand, 

4  baet  him  on  breostum     bealo-mS  weoll  [2715] 

5  attor  on  innan.     pa  se  seSeling  glong,2 
e  baet  he  bi  wealle,     wis-hycgende, 

7  gesaet  on  sesse ;     seah  on  ^nta  geweorc, 

s  hu  fa  stan-bogan     stapulum  faeste 

9  ece  eor<5-re,ced    innan  healde.  [2720] 

10  Hyne  fa  mid  handa    heoro-dreorigne, 

11  )>eoden  mserne,     fegn  ungemete  till, 

12  wine-dryhten  his     wsetere  gelafede, 

13  hilde-ssedne,     ond  his  helm  onspeon. 

u  Blowulf 3  ma^elode ;     he  of er  b^nne  spraec,        [2725] 

5.    se  asSeling  is  Beowulf. 

7.  §nta  geweorc  is  a  stereotyped  phrase  for  anything  that  occa- 
sions wonder  by  its  size  or  strangeness. 

9.  healde.  Heyne,  following  Ettmiiller,  reads  heoldon.  thus 
arbitrarily  changing  mood,  tense,  and  number  of  the  original.  Either 
mood,  indicative  or  subjunctive,  would  be  legitimate.  As  to  the  tense, 
the  narrator  is  identifying  himself  in  time  with  the  hero,  whose  wonder 
was  "how  the  stone-arches  .  .  .  sustain  the  ever-during earth-hall ": 
the  construction  is  a  form  of  oratio  recta,  a  sort  of  miratio  recta. 
The  singular  healde,  instead  of  healden,  has  many  parallels  in  the 
dependent  clauses  of  Beowulf,  most  of  these  being  relative  clauses 
introduced  by  ]?ara  J?e  (=  of  those  that  .  .  .  +  a  singular  predicate). 
In  the  present  instance,  the  predicate  has  doubtless  been  influenced 
by  the  proximity  of  eorS-r^ced,  a  <7?< cm-subject ;  and  we  have  no 
more  right  to  alter  to  healden  or  heoldon  than  we  have  to  change 
Shakespeare's  gives  to  give  in 

"  Words  to  the  heat  of  deeds  too  cold  breath  gives." 

(Macbeth,  II,  i,  61.) 

11.  The  J?egn  ungemete  till  is  Wiglaf,  the  bravest  of  Beowulf's 
retainers. 

14.  he  ofer  benne  spraec.  The  editors  and  translators  of  Beo- 
wulf invariably  render  ofer  in  this  passage  by  about;  but  Beowulf 


Extracts  from  Beowulf.  145 

1  wunde  wsel-bleate ;     wisse  he  gearwe, 

2  faet  he  daeg-hwila    gedrogen  heefde 
s  eorSan  wyune ;     J>a  wees  call  sceacen 

4  dogor-ge  rimes,     deao"  ungernete  neah : 

5  "  Nu  ic  suna  mlnum     syllan  wolde  [2730] 

6  guft-gewiedu,     J>ser  me  gife<5e  swa 

7  senig  yrfe-weard     sefter  wurde 

B  lice  gele_nge.     Ic  ftas  leode  heold 
9  f  If  tig  wintra ;     naes  se  f  olc-cyning 

10  ymbe-sittendra    senig  para,  [2735] 

11  }>e  mec  guS-wimim     gretan  dorste, 

12  ^gesan  Seon.     Ic  on  earde  bad 

13  meel-gesceafta,     heold  mm  tela, 

H  ne  sohte  searo-nlSas,     ne  me  swor  fela 

15  afta  on  unriht.     Ic  Sees  ealles  maeg,  l<2740] 

16  feorh-b^nnum  seoc,     gef can  habban ; 

n  for-fam  me  wltan  ne  Searf    Waldend4  flra 
is  morSor-bealo5  maga,     Jjonne  mm  sceaceS 

19  llf  of  lice.     Nu  Su  lungre  geong6 

20  hord  sceawian    under  harne  stan,  [2745] 

21  Wlglaf  leofa,     nu  se  wyrm  ligeS, 

22  swefeS  sare  wund,     since  bereafod. 

says  not  a  word  about  his  wound.  The  context  seems  to  me  to  show 
plainly  that  ofer  (cf .  Latin  supra}  denotes  here  opposition  =  in  spite 
of.  We  read  in  Genesis,  1.  594,  that  Eve  took  the  forbidden  fruit 
ofer  Drihtenes  word.  Beowulf  fears  (1.  2331)  that  he  may  have 
ruled  unjustly  =  ofer  ealde  riht ;  and  he  goes  forth  (1.  2409)  ofer 
willan  to  confront  the  dragon. 

6-8.  J?aer  me  .  .  .  gelfnge,  if  so  be  that  (J>aer  .  .  .  swa)  any 
heir  had  afterwards  been  given  me  (me  gifeSe  .  .  .  setter  wurde) 
belonging  to  my  body. 

19-20.  geong  [  =  gQng]  .  .  .  sceawian.  See  note  on  eode  .  .  . 
sittan,  p.  137,  11.  19-20.  In  Mn.E.  Go  see,  Go  fetch,  etc.,  is  the 
second  verb  imperative  (coordinate  with  the  first),  or  subjunctive 
(that  you  may  see),  or  infinitive  without  to  ? 

L 


146  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  Bio7  nu  on  ofoste,     J>aet  ic  ser-welan, 

2  gold-gent  ongite,     gearo  sceawige 

3  swegle  searo-gimmas,     J>set  ic  (5y  seft  maege       [2750] 

4  sefter  ma&5um-welan     mm  alsetan 

5  llf  Qnd  leod-scipe,     bone  ic  longe  heold." 

1  =  seo.  3  =  Beowulf.  6  =  go,ng  (gang). 

2  «=  geong.  *  =  Wealdend.  ~  —  Beo. 

5  =  morSor-bealu. 

BEOWULF'S  LAST  WORDS.     [Lines  2793-2821.] 

[Wiglaf  brings  the  jewels,  the  tokens  of  Beowulf's  triumph.  Beowulf, 
rejoicing  to  see  them,  reviews  his  career,  and  gives  advice  and  final  direc- 
tions to  Wiglaf.] 

6  Biowulf1  mafielode, 

7  g^mel  on  giohSe      (gold  sceawode) : 

s  "  Ic  para  f raetwa    Frean  ealles  Sane,  [2795] 

9  Wuldur-cyninge,     wordiim  s^cge 

10  ecum  Dryhtne,     pe  ic  her  on  starie, 

11  J>aes  )>e  ic  moste     mlnum  leodurn 

12  ser  swylt-daege     swylc  gestrynan. 

is  Nu  ic  on  maftma  hord     mine  bebohte  [2800] 

4-5.  min  .  .  .  llf.  See  note  on  ^nde-deeg  .  .  .  mmne,  p.  137, 
11.  16-17. 

8-12.  The  expression  sfcgan  pane  takes  the  same  construction 
as  )?ancian ;  i.e.,  the  dative  of  the  person  (Frean)  and  the  geni- 
tive (a  genitive  of  cause)  of  the  thing  (]?ara  fraetwa).  Cf.  note  on 
biddan,  p.  45.  The  antecedent  of  J>e  is  fraetwa.  For  the  position 
of  on,  see  §  94,  (5).  The  clause  introduced  by  Jjaes  J?e  (because)  is 
parallel  in  construction  with  fraetwa,  both  being  causal  modifiers  of 
secge  pane.  The  Christian  coloring  in  these  lines  betrays  the 
influence  of  priestly  transcribers. 

13.  Now  that  7,  in  exchange  for  (on)  a  hoard  of  treasures,  have 
bartered  (bebohte)  the  laying  down  (-l?ge>licgan)  of  my  old  life. 
The  ethical  codes  of  the  early  Germanic  races  make  frequent  mention 
of  blood-payments,  or  life-barters.  There  seems  to  be  here  a  sug- 
gestion of  the  "  wergild." 


Extracts  from  Beowulf.  147 

1  frode  feorh-l^ge,     fr^mmaS  ge  nu 

2  leoda  )>earfe ;     ne  maeg  ic  her  l^ng  wesan. 
s  Hatao"  heafto-msere     hlsew  gewyrcean, 

4  beorhtne  eef ter  bsele     set  brimes  nosan ; 

5  se  seel 2  to  gemyndum     minum  leodum  [2805] 
e  heah  hlifian    on  Hrones  nsesse, 

7  }>8et  hit  sse-li5end     sySSan  hatan3 
s  Blowulf es J  biorh J     fa  ]>e  brentingas 
9  ofer  floda  genipu     feorran  drifaft." 

10  Dyde  him  of  healse     hring  gyldenne  [28io] 

11  floden1  J?rist-hydig;     fegne  gesealde, 

12  geongum  gar-wigan,     gold-fahne  helm, 

is  beah  ond  byrnan,     het  hyne  brucan  well, 
w  "  pu  eart  ^nde-laf    usses  cynnes, 

15  Weegmundinga;     ealle  wyrd  forswgop  [2815] 

16  mine  magas     to  metod-sceafte, 

IT  eorlas  on  e_lne ;     ic  him  aefter  sceal." 
is  paet  W33S  )>am  gomelan     gingeste  word 
19  breost-gehygdum,     ger  he  bael  cure, 

1.  fr^mmaS  ge.  The  plural  imperative  (as  also  in  HataS)  shows 
that  Beowulf  is  here  speaking  not  so  much  to  Wiglaf  in  particular 
as,  through  Wiglaf,  to  his  retainers  in  general,  —  to  his  comitatus. 

6.  The  desire  for  conspicuous  burial  places  finds  frequent  expres- 
sion in  early  literatures.    The  tomb  of  Achilles  was  situated  "high 
on  a  jutting  headland  over  wide  Hellespont  that  it  might  be  seen  from 
off  the  sea."     Elpenor  asks  Ulysses  to  bury  him  in  the  same  way. 
^Eneas  places  the  ashes  of  Misenus  beneath  a  high  mound  on  a  head- 
land of  the  sea. 

7.  hit  =  hlaw,  which  is  masculine.     See  p.  39,  Note  2. 

10-11.  him  .  .  .  Jrioden.  The  reference  in  both  cases  is  to  Beo- 
wulf, who  is  disarming  himself  ($o-al>doff)  for  the  last  time  ;  )?egne 
=  to  Wiglaf. 

Note,  where  the  personal  element  is  strong,  the  use  of  the  dative 
instead  of  the  more  colorless  possessive  ;  him  of  healse,  not  of  his 
healse. 

17.    ic  .  .  .  sceal.     See  note  on  n.5  .  .  .  meahte,  p.  140, 1. 1. 


148  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  hate  heaSo-wylmas ;     him  of  hreftre  gewat        fzszo) 

2  sawol  secean     soft-faestra  dom. 

1  io,  io  =  go,  eo.  2  =  sceal.  8  =  haten. 


VII.    THE   WANDERER 

[Exeter  MS.  "  The  epic  character  of  the  ancient  lyric  appears  espe- 
cially in  this :  that  the  song  is  less  the  utterance  of  a  momentary  feeling 
than  the  portrayal  of  a  lasting  state,  perhaps  the  reflection  of  an  entire 
life,  generally  that  of  one  isolated,  or  bereft  by  death  or  exile  of  protectors 
and  friends."  (Ten  Brink,  Early  Eng.  Lit.,  I.)  I  adopt  Brooke's  three- 
fold division  (Early  Eng.  Lit.,  p.  356) :  "  It  opens  with  a  Christian  pro- 
logue, and  closes  with  a  Christian  epilogue,  but  the  whole  body  of  the 
poem  was  written,  it  seems  to  me,  by  a  person  who  thought  more  of  the 
goddess  Wyrd  than  of  God,  whose  life  and  way  of  thinking  were  unin- 
fluenced by  any  distinctive  Christian  doctrine." 

The  author  is  unknown.] 

PROLOGUE. 

s  Oft  him  anhaga     are  gebideft, 

4  Metudes l  miltse,     beah  be  he  modcearig 

5  geond  lagulade     longe  sceolde 

6  hreran  mid  hondum     hrimcealde  see, 

7  wadan  Avrseclastas :     wyrd  bi5  f ul  areed !  [5] 

8  Swa  cwssS  eardstapa     earfepa2  gemyndig, 

9  wrapra  waelsleahta,     winemsega  hryres : 

PLAINT  OF  THE  WANDERER. 

10  "  Oft  ic  sceolde  ana    uhtna  gehwylce 

11  mine  ceare  cwlban ;     nis  nu  cwicra  nan, 

1.   him  of  hreSre.     Cf.  note  on  him  .  .  .  Jrioden,  p.  147,  11. 10-11. 
1-2.   For  construction  of  gewat  .  .  .  secean,  see  note  on  eode 
.  .  .  sittan,  p.  137,  11.  19-20. 

9.   The  MS.  reading  is  hryre  (nominative),  which  is  meaningless. 
10.  For  uhtna  gehwylce,  see  note  on  cenra  gehwylcum,  p.  140. 


The  Wanderer.  149 

1  J>e  ic  him  modsefan     mmne  durre  [loj 

2  sweotule 3  as^cgan.     Ic  to  sope  wat 
s  pset  bij>  in  eorle     indryhten  }>eaw, 

4  )?aet  he  his  ferSlocan     faeste  binde, 

5  healde  his  hordcofan,     hycge  swa  he  wille ; 

c  ne  maeg  Averig  mod     wyrde  wrSstQndan  [15] 

7  ne  se  hreo  hyge     helpe  gefr^mman: 

8  for  Son  domgeorne     dreorigne  oft 

9  in  hyra  breostcofan     bindaS  faeste. 

10  Swa  ic  modsefan     mmne  sceolde 

11  oft  earmcearig     eSle  bidseled,  [20] 

12  freomsegum  feor     feterum  saelan, 
is  sipfan  geara  iu     goldwine  mmne 

w  hrusan  heolster  biwrah,     and  ic  hean  fgnan 

15  wod  wintercearig    ofer  wafema  gebind, 

16  sohte  s^le  dreorig     sinces  bryttan,  [25] 

17  hwser  ic  feor  o)>J>e  neah     findan  meahte 
is  pone  ]>e  in  meoduhealle  *     miltse  wisse 

19  offe  mec  freondleasne     frefran  wolde, 

20  w^nian  mid  wynnum.     Wat  se  }>e  cunnatS 

21  hu  slifen  bi(5     sorg  to  gef eran  [so] 

22  pam  )>e  him  lyt  haf a3     leof ra  geholena : 

23  waraS  hine  wraeclast,     nales  wunden  gold, 

24  fer^loca  freorig,     nalaes  foldan  bleed ; 

25  geniQn  he  s^les^cgas     and  sincf^ge, 

26  hu  hine  on  geoguSe     his  goldwine  [85] 

27  we^nede  to  wiste :     wyn  eal  gedreas ! 

1.   Ipe  . . .  him.    See  §  75  (4).    Cf.  Merchant  of  Venice,  II,  6,  50-51. 
18.  For  mine  (MS.  in),  which  does  not  satisfy  metrical  require- 
ments, I  adopt  Kluge's  plausible  substitution  of  miltse ;  miltse  witan 
=  to  show  (know,  feel),  pity.     The  myne  wisse  of  Beowulf  (1.  169) 
is  metrically  admissible. 


150  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  For  bon  wat  se  be  sceal    his  winedryhtnes 

2  leofes  larcwidum     longe  forbolian, 

3  <5onne  sorg  and  slaip     somod  setgsedre 

4  earmne  anhagan     oft  gebindaS :  [40J 

5  binceS  him  on  mode     bset  he  his  mondryhten 
e  clyppe  and  cysse,     and  on  cneo  le_cge 

7  honda  and  heafod,     swa  he  hwilum  aer 

s  in  geardagum     giefstoles  breac ; 

9  tSonne  onwsecneS  eft     wineleas  guma,  [45] 

10  gesihS  him  biforan     fealwe  weegas, 

11  ba)>ian  brimfuglas,     breedan  fefra, 

12  hreosan  hrim  and  snaw     hagle  gem^nged. 
is  Ponne  beoS  ]>y  h^figran     heortan  b^nne, 

w  sare  aefter  swSsne ;     sorg  1 16  geniwad ;  [5oJ 

15  Jjonne  maga  gemynd     mod  geondhweorfeft, 

16  grete6  gliwstafum,     georne  geondsceawaS. 
IT  S^cga  geseldan     swimmafc  eft  on  weg; 

is  fleotendra  ferS5     no  J>aer  fela  bringeft 

19  cu^ra  cwidegiedda;     cearo6  bi6  geniwad  [55] 

1.  The  object  of  w5t  is  JjinceS  him  on  mode;  but  the  con- 
struction is  unusual,  inasmuch  as  both  ]?aet's  (Jjaet  pronominal  before 
•wat  and  J>aet  conjunctional  before  JjinceS)  are  omitted.  See  p.  112, 
11.  18-19. 

5.  )rince3  him  on  mode  (see  note  on  him  .  .  .  Jjioden,  p.  147). 
"No  more  sympathetic  picture  has  been  drawn  by  an  Anglo-Saxon 
poet  than  where  the  wanderer  in  exile  falls  asleep  at  his  oar  and  dreams 
again  of  his  dead  lord  and  the  old  hall  and  revelry  and  joy  and  gifts,  — 
then  wakes  to  look  once  more  upon  the  waste  of  ocean,  snow  and  hail 
falling  all  around  him,  and  sea-birds  dipping  in  the  spray."  (Gum- 
mere,  Germanic  Origins,  p.  221.) 

17-19.  S?cga  .  .  .  cwidegiedda  =  But  these  comrades  of  warriors 
[=  those  seen  in  vision]  again  swim  away  [  =  fade  away]  ;  the  ghost 
of  these  fleeting  ones  brings  not  there  many  familiar  icords;  i.e.  he 
sees  in  dream  and  vision  the  old  familiar  faces,  but  no  voice  is  heard  : 
they  bring  neither  greetings  to  him  nor  tidings  of  themselves. 


The   Wanderer.  151 

1  J>am  fe  se^ndan  sceal    swipe  geneahhe 

2  ofer  wapema  gebind     werigne  sefan. 

3  For  fon  ic  gep^ncan  ne  maeg     geond  fas  woruld 

4  for  hwan  modsefa    mm  ne  gesweorce, 

5  ponne  ic  eorla  lif    eal  geondf^nce,  [eo] 

6  hu  hi  faerlice     fl$t  ofgeafon, 

7  modge  magupegnas.     Swa  )>es  middangeard 

8  ealra  dogra  gehwam     dreoseo"  and  f eallej) ; 

9  for  }>on  ne  mseg  weorj>an  wls     wer,  ser  he  age 

10  wintra  deel  in  woruldrlce.    Wita  sceal  gefyldig,  [65] 

11  ne  sceal  no  to  hatheort    ne  to  hrsedwyrde, 

12  ne  to  wac  wiga    ne  to  wanhydig, 

13  ne  to  forht  ne  to  fsegen     ne  to  feohgifre, 

14  ne  nsefre  gielpes  to  georn,     eer  he  geare  cunne. 

15  Beorn  sceal  gebldan,     J>onne  he  beot  spricetS,      [TO] 

16  o]>  }>8et  collenfertS     cunne  gearwe 

17  hwider  hrejjra  gehygd     hweorfan  wille. 

is  Ongietan  sceal  gleaw  hsele     hu  gsestlic  bits, 

19  fonne  eall  Jnsse  worulde  wela    weste  stondet5, 

20  swa  nu  missenlice     geond  )>isne  middangeard      [T5] 

21  winde  biwaune7    weallas  stgndaf, 

10.  Wita  sceal  ge)?yldig.  Either  beon  (wesan)  is  here  to  be 
understood  after  sceal,  or  sceal  alone  means  ought  to  be.  Neither 
construction  is  to  be  found  in  Alfredian  prose,  though  the  omission  of 
a  verb  of  motion  after  sculan  is  common  in  all  periods  of  Old  English. 
See  note  on  no  ...  meahte.  p.  140. 

20.  swa  nu.  "  The  Old  English  lyrical  feeling,"  says  Ten  Brink, 
citing  the  lines  that  immediately  follow  swa.  nu,  "  is  fond  of  the  image 
of  physical  destruction  "  ;  but  I  do  not  think  these  lines  have  a  merely 
figurative  import.  The  reference  is  to  a  period  of  real  devastation, 
antedating  the  Danish  incursions.  "  We  might  fairly  find  such  a  time 
in  that  parenthesis  of  bad  government  and  of  national  tumult  which 
filled  the  years  between  the  death  of  Aldfrith  in  705  and  the  renewed 
peace  of  Xorthumbria  under  Ceolwulf  in  the  years  that  followed  729." 
(Brooke,  Early  Eng.  Lit.,  p.  355.) 


152  Selections  for  Reading. 

1  hrime  bihrorene,8     hrySge  fa  ederas. 

2  WoriaS  fa  wlnsalo,9    waldend  licgaS 

8  dreame  bidrorene 10 ;     duguft  eal  gecrong 

4  wl$nc  bi  wealle :     sume  wig  fornom,  [so} 

5  f e.rede  in  f  orftwege ;     sumne  f ugel n  of  baer 

6  ofer  heanne  holm ;     sumne  se  hara  wulf 

7  deaSe  gedeelde ;     sumne  dreorighleor 

8  in  eorSscrsefe     eorl  gehydde : 

9  yfde  swa  fisne  eardgeard    selda  Scyppend,         [86] 

10  of  faet  burgwara    breahtma  lease 

11  eald  $uta  geweorc    idlu  stodon. 

12  Se  fonne  fisne  wealsteal     wise  gepohte, 

13  and  fis  decree  lif    deope  geondf^nceS, 

w  frod  in  ferSe12    feor  oft  gem^n  [so] 

15  waelsleahta  worn,     and  fas  word  acwi'S  : 

16  '  Hwser  cwom  mearg  ?   hweer  cwom  mago 13  ?   hwaer 

cwom  maff umgyf a  ? 
IT  hwser  cwom  symbla  gesetu  ?      hwser  sindon  s^le- 

dreanias  ? 
is  Eala  beorht  bune !     eala  byrnwiga ! 

19  6ala  f eodnes  f rym  !     hu  seo  frag  gewat,  [95] 

20  genap  under  nihthelm,     swa  heo  no  wsere  ! 

21  St^ndetJ  nu  on  laste    leofre  dugufe 

22  weal  wundrum  heah,     wyrmllcum  fah : 

23  eorlas  fornomon     asca  f ryf e, 

17.  cwom  .  .  .  gesetu.  Ettmiiller  reads  cwomon ;  but  see 
p.  107,  note  on  wees  .  .  .  J>5.  Igland.  The  occurrence  of  hweer  cwom 
three  times  in  the  preceding  line  tends  also  to  hold  cwom  in  the 
singular  when  its  plural  subject  follows.  Note  the  influence  of  a 
somewhat  similar  structural  parallelism  in  seas  hides  of  these  lines 
(Winter's  Tale,  IV,  iv,  500-502)  : 

"  Not  for  ...  all  the  sun  sees  or 
The  close  earth  wombs  or  the  profound  seas  hides 
In  unknown  fathoms,  will  I  break  my  oath." 


The   Wanderer.  153 

1  wjgpen  waelgifru,     wyrd  seo  meere  ;  [100] 

2  and  pas  stanhleojm14     stormas  cnyssatS ; 

3  hriS  hreosende     hrusan  bindetS, . 

4  wintres  woma,     ponne  w^n  cymetS, 

5  mpeS  nihtscua,     norpau  onse,nde$ 

e  hreo  hseglfare     haelejnmi  on  andan.  [105] 

7  Eall  is  earfoftlic    eorfan  rice, 

8  onw^ndet?  wyrda  gesceaft      weoruld  under  heofo- 

num: 

9  her  biS  feoh  leene,     her  bi5  freond  Isene, 

10  her  bi(5  mon  leene,     her  bi6  mseg  leene  ; 

11  eal  pis  eorfan  gesteal     idel  weorpeS  ! ' '  [no] 

EPILOGUE. 

12  Swa  cwseS  snottor  on  mode,     gesaet  him  sundor  aet 

rune. 

13  Til  bi)>  se  J>e  his  treowe  gehealdeft ;     ne  sceal  nsefre 

his  torn  to  rycene 
w  beorn  of  his  breostum   acyfan,      nempe  he  ser  fa 

bote  cunne ; 
15  eorl  mid  ejne  gefre.mman.     Wei  biS  fam  pe  him 

are  seceS, 


16  frof  re  to 

Feeder  on  heofonum, 

fser  us   eal  seo 

ftestnung  stondeS. 

[115] 

1  =  Metodes. 

6  =  cearu. 

»  =  fugol. 

2  =  earfo^a. 

7  See  bewawan. 

12  =  ferh«e. 

3  =  sweotole. 

8  See  behreosan. 

13  =  magu. 

4  =  medu-. 

9  =  wlnsalu. 

14  =  -hli«n. 

6  =  ferh«. 

10  See  bedreosan. 

12.    gesaet  .  .  .  rune,  sat  apart  to  himself  in  silent  meditation. 
.15.    eorl  .  .  .  gefrftnman.     Supply  sceal  after  eorl. 


I.   GLOSSARY. 


OLD  ENGLISH  — MODERN  ENGLISH. 

[The  order  of  words  is  strictly  alphabetical,  except  that  8  follows  t. 
The  combination  ae  follows  ad. 

Gender  is  indicated  by  the  abbreviations,  m.  ( =  masculine) ,  f. 
( =  feminine) ,  n.  ( =  neuter) .  The  usual  abbreviations  are  employed 
for  the  cases,  nom.,  gen.,  dat.,  ace.,  and  instr.  Other  abbreviations 
are  sing.  (=  singular),  pi.  (=  plural),  ind.  (=  indicative  mood),  sub. 
(=  subjunctive  mood),  pres.  (=  present  tense),  pret.  (=  preterit  tense), 
prep.  (=  preposition),  adj.  (=  adjective),  adv.  (=  adverb),  part. 
(=  participle),  conj.  (=  conjunction),  pron.  (=  pronoun),  intrans. 
(=  intransitive),  trans.  (=  transitive). 

Figures  not  preceded  by  §  refer  to  page  and  line  of  the  texts.] 


5,  ever,  always,  aye. 

abbudisse.  f.,  abbess  [Lat.  abba- 

tissa]. 
abeodan  (§  109),  bid,  offer;  him 

hsel  ahead  138,  9  =  bade  him 

hail,  wished  him  health. 
abrecan  (§  120,  Note  2),  break 

down,  destroy. 
abugan    (§   109,   Note,   1),   give 

way,  start  [bow  away]. 

ac,  conj.,  but. 

acweSan  (§  115),  say,  speak. 
acySan  (§  126),  reveal,  proclaim 
[cu3]. 

ad,  m.,  funeral  pile. 
adesa,  m.,  adze,  hatchet. 
se  (sew),  f.,  law. 


sedre  (edre),  f.,  stream,  canal, 
vein;  blod  edrum  dranc  139, 
4  =  drank  blood  in  streams 
(instr.). 

aefaestnis.  f .,  piety. 

aef en-raest,  f . ,  evening  rest. 

eefen-spreec,  f.,  evening  speech. 

eef?st  (eewffst),  law-abiding, 
pious. 

eeff stnis,  see  eefeestnis. 

aefre.  ever,  always. 

setter,  prep.  (§  94,  (1)),  after; 
setter  Seem,  after  that,  there- 
after; getter  Seem  3e,  conj., 
after. 

aefter,  adv.,  after,  afterwards. 

eeghwa  (§  77,  Note),  each,  every. 

Sghwilc  (§  77,  Note),  each,  any. 

eegleeca,  see  aglaeca. 


155 


156 


Glossary. 


aegSer  (eeghwasSer,  aSer)  (§  77, 
Note),  each,  either;  aegSer  .  .  . 
oSer  .  .  .  oSer,  either  ...  or 
.  .  .  or;  segSer  ge  .  .  .  ge 
(§  95,  (2)),  both  .  .  .  and; 
aegSer  ge  .  .  .  ge  .  .  .  ge,  both 
.  .  .  and  .  .  .  and. 

gent,  f.,  property,  possession 
[agan]. 

selc  (§  77),  each. 

aelde  (ielde)  (§  47),  m.  pi., 
men;  gen.  pi.,  aelda. 

aelmihtig.  almighty. 

aemetta.  m.,  leisure  [empt t'-ness] . 

senig  (§  77),  any ;  eenige  Singa 
141,  22  =for  anything.  (See 
140,  15,  Note.) 

Ser,  adv.,  before,  formerly,  sooner ; 
no  py  eer  140,  1  =  none  the 
sooner;  eeror,  comparative,  be- 
fore, formerly;  aerest,  superla- 
tive, first. 

Sr,  conj.  (§  105,  2),  ere,  before 
=  aer  Saem  3e. 

eer,  prep,  with  dat.,  before  (time); 
eer  Seem  Se,  conj.  (§  105,  2), 
fee/ore. 

asrcebisceop,  m. ,  archbishop 
[Lat.  archiepiscopus]. 

eerendgewrit,  n.,  message,  letter. 

eerendwreca  (-raca),  m.,  mes- 
senger. 

eerest,  adj.  (§  96,  (4)),  jfo-sJ. 

aernan  (§  127),  n'cZe,  gallop 
[iernan]. 

aerra,  adj.  (§  96,  (4~)~) ,  former. 

eerwela,  m.,  ancient  wealth. 

aesc,  m.,  ash,  spear ;  gen. pi.,  asca. 

JEscesdun,  f.,  Ashdown  (in  Berk- 
shire). 

aestel,  m.,  book-mark  [Lat.  has- 
tula]. 


set  (§  94,  (1)),  at,  in;  with  leor- 
nian,  to  learn,  geSicgan.  to 
receive,  and  other  verbs  of  simi- 
lar import,  set  =  from :  115, 18  ; 
137,  8,  etc. 

aetberan  (§  114),  bear  to,  hand. 

aetgaed(e)re,  adv.,  together. 

getsteppan  (§  116),  step  up,  ad- 
vance; pret.  sing.,  setstop. 

aeSele,  noble,  excellent. 

oeSeling.  m. ,  a  noble,  prince. 

.ZESelwulfing.  in.,  son  of  Ethel- 
wulf. 

.ffiSered,  m.,  Ethelred. 

afeallan  (§  117),  fall. 

afierran  (§  127),  remove  [feor]. 

agan  (§  136),  to  own,  possess. 

agen,  adj. -part.,  own;  dat.  sing., 
agnum  [agan]. 

agiefan  (§  115),  give  back. 

aglaeca  (eegleeca),  m.,  monster, 
champion. 

ahton.  see  agan. 

aleetan  (§  117),  let  go,  leave. 

aldor,  see  ealdor. 

al^cgan  (§  125,  Note),  lay  down 
[licgan] ;  past  part.,  aled. 

Alieaend,  m.,  Redeemer  [  aliesan 
=  release,  ransom] . 

alimpan.  (§  110),  befall,  occur. 

alyfan  (§  126),  entrust,  permit. 

ambor,  m.,  measure;  gen.  pi., 
ambra  (§27,  (4)). 

ambyre,  favorable. 

an  (§  89),  one;  ana,  alone,  only ; 
anra  gehwylcum  141,  15  =  to 
each  one.  (See  140,  15,  Note.) 

anda,  m.,  zeal,  injury,  indigna- 
tion ;  haeleSiim  on  andan  153, 
6  =  harmful  to  men. 

andefn,  f.,  proportion,  amount. 

andgiet  (-git),  n.,  sewse,  meaning. 


Glossary. 


157 


andgitfulllce,    intelligibly;   -git- 

fullicost,  superlative. 
andswaru,  f.,  answer. 
andwyrdan  (§  127),  to  answer; 

pret.,  andwyrde. 
Angel,  n.,  Anglen  (in  Denmark)  ; 

dat.  sing.,  Angle  (§  27  (4)). 
Angelcynn.     n.,     English    kin, 

English  people,  England. 
anhaga  (-hoga),  m.,  a  solitary, 

wanderer  [an  —  hogian.  to  med- 
itate"] . 

anlipig.  single,  individual. 
anunga  (§  93,  (2)),  once  for  all 

[an]. 
apostol,  m.,  apostle  [Gr.  &ir6<TTo- 

Xoj]. 
ar,  f.,  honor,  properly,  favor ;  are 

gebideS     148,    3  =  waits  for 

divine  favor  (gen.), 
araed,  adj.,  inexorable. 
araedan  (§  126),  read. 
arfcc(e)an    (§   128),    translate, 

expound. 

arfaestnis,  f.,  virtue. 
arisan  (§  102),  arise. 
asca,  see  aesc. 
asecgan  (§  132),  say,  relate. 
asfttan  (§  127),  set,  place. 
asingan  (§  110),  sing. 
aspendan  (§  127),  spend,  expend. 
astigan  (§  102),  ascend,  arise. 
astpndan  (§  116),  stand  up. 
ateah,  see  ateon. 
atelic,  horrible,  dire. 
ateon  (§  118),  draw,  draw  away, 

take  (as  a  journey). 
atol,  horrible,  dire. 
attor,  n.,  poison. 
atuge,  see  ateon. 
aS,  m.,  oath. 
,  see  aegSer. 


(§  128),  awake,  arouse; 
pret.  sing.,  aweahte,  aw^hte. 

away. 

aw$ndan  (§  127),  turn,  translate. 
Swritan  (§  102),  write;  compose. 
Swyrcan  (§  128),  work,  do,  per- 
form. 

B. 

Bachsecg.  m.,  Bagsac. 

baecbord,  n.,  larboard,  left  side 
of  a  ship. 

bael,  n. ,  funeral  fire,  funeral  pile. 

ban,  n.,  bone. 

ban-fag,  adorned  with  bones  or 
antlers. 

ban-loca,  m. ,  flesh  [bone-locker] . 

Basengas,  m.  pi.,  Basing  (in 
Hantshire). 

be  (bi)  (§  94,  (1)),  by,  about, 
concerning,  near,  along,  accord- 
ing to ;  be  norSan  balm  wSs- 
tenne  (§  94,  (4)),  north  of  the 
waste  {desert)  ;  befullan,/M%, 
perfectly. 

beag.  see  bugan. 

beag-hroden,  ring-adorned. 

bean  (beag),  m.,  ring,  bracelet, 
collar  [bugan]. 

bealo-ni3,  m.,  dire  hatred, poison, 
venom. 

beam,  n.,  child,  son  [bairn]. 

bebeodan  (§  109),  command,  bid, 
entrust  (with  dat. ) . 

bebio-,  see  bebeo-. 

bebohte,  see  bebycgan. 

bebycgan  (§  128),  sell. 

bee,  see  boc. 

becuman  (§  114),  come,  arrive^ 
befall. 

bedselan  (§  126),  separate,  de- 
prive. 


158 


Glossary. 


bedreosan  (§  109),  deprive  ;  past 
part,  pi.,  bedrorene  (bidro- 
rene)  [dross,  dreary]. 

befaestan  (§  127) , fasten,  implant. 

befeolan  (§  110),  apply  one's  self; 
Sara  5e  3a  speda  hasbben 
daet  Me  Seem  befeolan  maegen 
119,  20  =  of  those  who  have  the 
means  by  which  they  may  apply 
themselves  to  it. 

beforan,  prep,  with  dat.,  before. 

begen  (declined  like  twegeii. 
§  89),  both. 

begeondan  begiondan  .  prep, 
with  dat. ,  beyond. 

begietan  (§  115),  get,  obtain, 
find. 

beginnan  (§110),  begin. 

beheonan  behionan  ,  prep, 
with  dat.,  on  this  side  of. 

behreSsan  (§  109),  fall  upon, 
cover ;  past  part,  pi.,  behrorene 
(bihrorene) . 

belimpan  (§  110) , pertain,  belong. 

beniman  (§  114),  take,  derive. 

benn,  f.,  wound  [bana  =  mur- 
derer]. 

beon  (blon)  (§  134),  be,  consist. 

beorh  (beorg,  biorh),  m.,  mound 
[barrow] . 

beorht,  bright,  glorious. 

Beormas,  m.  pi.,  Permians. 

beorn,  m.,  man,  hero,  chief. 

beor-b§gu,  f.,  beer-drinking  [bic- 
gan  =  receive]. 

beot,  n.,  boast. 

beran  (§  114),  bear. 

bereafian  (§130),  bereave;  since 
bereafod  145,  22  =  bereft  of 
treasure. 

beren,  adj.,  of  a  bear,  bear. 

berstan  (§  110) ,  burst,  crack. 


besmi&ian  (§  130),  make  hard 
(as  at  the  forge  of  a  smith). 

bet,  see  wel  (§  97,  (2)). 

betan  (§  126),  make  good,  re- 
quite; past.  part,  pi.,  gebette. 

betera  (betra),  see  god  (§  96, 
(3))- 

betlic,  excellent. 

betsta,  see  god  (§  96,  (3)). 

betuh  (betux)  (§  94,  (1)),  be- 
tween. 

betweonan  (§94,  (1)),  between. 

betynan  (§  126),  close,  end  [tun 
=  enclosure']. 

bewawan  (§  117),  blow  upon  ; 
past  part,  pi.,  bewaune  (bi- 
waune,  bev^a^^ene). 

bewreon  (§  118, 1),  enwrap;  pret. 
3d  sing.,  bewrah  (biwrah). 

bi,  see  be. 

bi-,  see  be-. 

bidan  (§  102),  bide,  await,  expect, 
endure  (with  gen.). 

biddan  (§  115,  Note  2),  bid,  pray, 
request  (§  65,  Note  3)  ;  baed 
nine  bliSne  136,  7  =  bade  him 
be  blithe. 

bindan  (§  110),  bind. 

bio,  see  beo  (imperative  sing.). 

bisceop  (biscep),  m.,  bishop 
[Lat.  episcopus]. 

bisceop-stol,  m.,  episcopal  seat, 
bishopric. 

bisigu,  f.,  business,  occupation; 
dat.  pi.,  bisgum. 

bitan  (§  102),  bite,  cut. 

biwrah,  see  bewreon. 

bleed,  m.,  glory, prosperity  [blaw- 
an  =  blow,  inflate]. 

Blecinga-eg,  f.,  Blekingen. 

bliss,  f.,  bliss  [bHSe]. 

bliSe,  blithe,  happy. 


Glossary. 


159 


blod,  n.,  blood. 

hoc  (§  68,  (1),  Note  1),  f.,  book. 

bocere,  m.,  scribe  [boc]. 

bQna  (bana),  m.,  murderer 
[bane]. 

bot,  f.,  boot,  remedy,  help,  com- 
pensation. 

brad  (§  96,  (1)),  broad. 

brae  dan  (§  126),  extend,  spread 
[brad]. 

brsedra.  see  brad. 

braegd,  see  bregdan. 

breac,  see  brucan. 

breahtm.  m.,  noise,  revelry; 
burgwara  breahtma  lease  152, 
10  =  bereft  of  the  revelries  of 
citizens. 

bregdan  (§  110),  brandish,  draw 
[braid]  ;  pret.  ind.  3d  sing., 
braegd. 

brenting,  m.,  high  ship. 

breost,  n.,  breast  (the  pi.  has  the 
same  meaning  as  the  sing.). 

breost-cofa,  m.,  breast-chamber, 
heart,  mind. 

breost  -  gehygd,  n.,  breast- 
thought,  thought  of  the  heart, 
emotion. 

brim,  n.,  sea,  ocean. 

brimfugol,  in.,  sea-fowl. 

bringan  (§  128),  bring. 

brohte,  brohton,  see  bringan. 

broSor  (broSur)  (§  68,  (2)),  m., 
brother. 

brucan  (§  109,  Note  1),  use,  en- 
joy (§  62,  Note  1  ;  but  Alfred 
frequently  employs  the  ace.  with 
brucan) . 

brycg,  f.,  bridge. 

brycS,  see  brucan. 

brytta,  m.,  distributor,  dispenser 
[breotan  =  break  in  pieces'}. 


buan  (§  126,  Note' 2),  dwell,  cul- 
tivate [bower]. 

bude,  see  buan. 

bufan,  prep,  with  dat.  and  ace., 
above. 

bugan  (§  109,  Note  1),  bow,  bend, 
turn. 

buiie.  f.,  cup. 

burg  (burh)  (§  68,  (1),  Note),  f., 
city,  borough;  dat.  sing.,  byrig. 

Burgenda,  m.  gen.  pi. ,  of  the 
Burgundians;  Burgenda  land, 
Bornholm. 

burgware  (§  47),  m.  pi.,  burgh- 
ers, citizens. 

burh,  see  burg. 

butan  (buton),  prep.  (§  94,  (1)), 
without,  except,  except  for,  but. 

butan  (buton),  conj.,  except  that, 
unless. 

butu,  both  ( =  both  —  two.  The 
word  is  compounded  of  the  com- 
bined neuters  of  begen  and 
twegen,  but  is  m.  and  f.  as 
well  as  n.). 

byn  (§  126,  Note  2),  cultivated. 

byrde,  adj.,  of  high  rank,  aristo- 
cratic. 

byrig,  see  burg. 

byrne,  f.,  byrnie,  corselet,  coat  of 
mail. 

byrnwiga,  m.,  byrnie-warrior, 
mailed  soldier. 

byr8,  see  beran. 

C. 

canon,   in.,  sacred  canon,  Bible 

[Lat.  canon,  Gr.  Kaviav}. 
cearu  (cearo),  f..  care. 
ceaster-biiend,  in.,  castle-dweller. 
cene,  keen,  bold,  brave. 


160 


Glossary. 


ceosan  (§  109),  choose,  accept, 

encounter. 
cild,  n.,  child. 
cirice,  f. ,  church  ;  nom.  pi.,  ciric- 

ean. 

cirr  (cierr),  m.,  turn,  time,  occa- 
sion    [char,    chore,    ajar  =  on 

char,  on  the  turn]. 
cirran  (§  127),  turn. 
claene.  clean,  pure. 
claene,  adv.,  entirely  ["clean  out 

of  the  way,"  Shaks.]. 
cludig,  rocky  [having  boulders  or 

masses  like  clouds}. 
clyppan  (§  127),  embrace,  accept 

[clip  =  clasp  for  letters,  papers, 

etc.]. 

cnapa,  m.,  boy  [knave]. 
cneo   (cneow),   n.,   knee;    ace. 

pi.,  cneo. 

cniht,  m.,  knight,  warrior. 
cnyssan  (§  125),  beat. 
collenferS  (-ferb.5),  proud-minded, 

fierce. 

costnung.  f.,  temptation. 
Crecas  (Creacas),  m.  pi.,  Greeks. 
cringan  (§  110),  cringe,  fall. 
Crist,  m.,  Christ. 
Cristen,  Christian;  nom.  pi.  m., 

Cristene.  Ciistne. 
cuma,  m.,  new-comer,  stranger. 
cuman  (§  114),  come.  (See  p.  138, 

Note  on  11.  2-6.) 

cunnan  (§  137),  know,  can,  under- 
stand. 
cunnian  (§  130),  make  trial  of, 

experience  [cunnan]. 
cure,  see  ceosan. 
cu3,  well-known,  familiar   [past 

part,  of  cunnan:  cf.  uncouth]. 
cvi8e,  cuSen,  cuSon.  see  cunnan. 
cweeden,  c  waedon.  see cweSan. 


cwalu,  f.,  death,  murder  [cwel- 
an]. 

cwealm-cuma,  m.,  murderous 
comer. 

cwelan  (§  114),  die  [to  quail]. 

cwen,  f.,  queen. 

Cwenas,  in.  pi.,  a  Finnish  tribe. 

cweSan  (§  115),  say,  speak 
[quoth,  bequeath]. 

cwic,  living,  alive  [quicksilver ; 
the  quick  and  the  dead]. 

cwidegiedd,  n.,  ivord,  utterance 
[cweSan  and  gieddian,  both 
meaning  to  speak}. 

cwiSan  (§  126),  bewail  (trans.). 

cwom,  see  cuman. 

cyle  (ciele),  m.,  cold  [chill]  ; 
cyle  gewyrcan  110,  7  =  pro- 
duce cold,  freeze. 

cyme,  m.,  coming  [cuman]. 

cyn(n),  n.,  kin,  race. 

cyn(n),  adj.  (used  only  in  pi.), 
fitting  things,  etiquette,  proprie- 
ties, courtesies ;  cynna  gemyn- 
dig  136,  3  =  mindful  of  courte- 
sies. 

cynerlce,  n.,  kingdom. 

cyning,  m.,  king. 

cyssan  (§  125),  kiss. 

cyst,  f . ,  the  choice,  the  pick,  the 
best  [ceosan]. 

cySan  (§  126),  make  known,  dis- 
play, [cuS]  ;  2d  sing,  impera- 
tive, cyS. 

D. 

died,  f.,  deed. 

daeg,  m.,  day. 

deeg-hwil,  f.,  day-while,  day  ;  hS 
deeg-hwfla  gedrogen  hsefde 
eorSan  wynne  145,  2  =  he  had 
spent  his  days  of  earth's  joy. 


Glossary. 


161 


daeg-nm,  n.,  number  of  days  [day- 
rime]  ;  dogera  daeg-rim  143,  7 
=  the  number  of  his  days. 

dael,  n.,  dale. 

deel,  m.,part,  deal,  division. 

dead.  dead. 

deaS,  m.,  death. 

demau  (§  126),  deem,  judge. 

D^namearc,  see  Denemearc. 

Dene  (§  47),  m.  pi.,  Danes. 

Dfnemearc  (D^nemearce),  f., 
Denmark;  dat.  sing.,  D^ne- 
mearce  (strong) ,  D?  nemearcan 
(weak). 

Denisc,  Danish ;  3a  Deniscan. 
the  Danes. 

deofol,  m.  n.,  devil;  gen.  sing., 
deofles  (§  27,  (4)). 

deope,  deeply,  profoundly  [deop]. 

deor,  n.,  wild  animal  [deer]. 

deorc,  dark,  gloomy. 

dogor,  n.,  day  ;  gen.  pi.,  ddgora, 
dogera,  dogra. 

dogor-gerim,  n.,  number  of  days, 
lifetime. 

dom,  in.,  doom,  judgment,  glory. 

domgeorn,  adj.,  eager  for  glory 
[doom-yearning] . 

don  (§  135),  do,  cause,  place, 
promote,  remove. 

dorste,  dorston,  see  durran. 

dream,  m.,joy,  mirth  [dream]. 

dreogan  (§  109),  endure,  enjoy, 
spend  [Scotch  dree]. 

dreorig,  dreary,  sad. 

dreorighleor,  adj.,  with  sad  face 
[hleor  =  cheek,  face,  leer] . 

dreosan  (§  109),  fall,  perish 
[dross]. 

drifan  (§  102),  drive. 

drihten.  see  dryhten. 

drincan  (§  110),  drink. 


drohtoS  (-a8),  m.,  mode  of  liv- 
ing, occupation  [dreogan]. 

drugon,  see  dreogan. 

dryhten  (drihten),  m.,  lord. 
Lord;  dat.  sing.,  dryhtne. 

dryht-s^le,  m.,  lordly  hall. 

duguS,  f.,  warrior-band,  host, 
retainers  [doughtiness].  In 
duguS  and  geogoS.  the  higher 
(older)  and  lower  (younger) 
ranks  are  represented,  the  dis- 
tinction corresponding  roughly 
to  the  mediaeval  distinction  be- 
tween knights  and  squires. 

durran  (§  137),  dare. 

duru,  f.,  door. 

dyde,  see  don. 

dynnan  (§  125),  resound  [din]. 

dyre  (dlere,  deore,  diore),  dear, 
costly. 

E. 

Sa,  f.,  river;  gen.  sing.,  gas  ;  dat. 

and  ace.  sing.,  ga. 
gac,  also,  likewise  [a  nickname  = 

an  eek-name.    See  §  65,  Note  2] ; 

eac   swilce   (swelce)    112,  3 

=  also. 
eaca,    in.,    addition    [gac]  ;    to 

eacan  =  in  addition  to  (§  94, 

(4))- 

cage,  n.,  eye. 
eahta.  eight. 
gala,  oh!  alas! 
ealaS.  see  ealu. 
eald  (§  96,  (2)),  old. 
ealdor  (aldor),  n.,  life;  gif  Su 

Saet  e^lenweorc  aldre   gedl- 

gest  138,  17  =  if  thou  survivest 

that  feat  with  thy  life  (instr.). 
ealdor-daeg     (aldor-,    ealder-), 

m.,  day  of  life. 


162 


Glossary. 


ealdor-gedal  (aldor-),  n.,  death 
[life-deal]. 

ealdonngn,  m.,  alderman,  chief, 
magistrate. 

ealgian,  (§  130),  protect,  defend. 

eall  (eal),  all;  ealne  weg,  all 
the  way  (§  98,  (1))  ;  ealneg 
(< ealne  weg),  always;  ealles 
(§  98,  (3)),  adv.,  altogether,  en- 
tirely. Eall  (eal)  is  frequently 
used  with  partitive  gen.  =  all  of: 
143,  19  ;  145,  3. 

ealu  (ealo)  (§  68),  n.,  ale;  gen. 
sing.,  eala8. 

ealu-scerwen,  f.,  mortal  panic 
[ale-spilling]. 

eard,  m.,  country,  home  [eorSe]. 

eardgeard,  m.,  earth  [earth-yard]. 

eardian  (§  130),  dwell  [eard]. 

eardstapa,  m.,  wanderer  [earth- 
stepper]. 

eare,  n.,  ear. 

earfoS  (earfeS),  n.,  hardship, 
toil;  gen.  pi.,  earfeSa. 

earfoollc,  adj.,  full  of  hardship, 
arduous. 

earm.  m.,  arm. 

earm,  adj.,  poor,  wretched. 

earmcearig,  wretched,  miserable. 

earmlic.  wretched,  miserable. 

earnung,  f.,  merit  [earning]. 

east,  east. 

eastan  (§  93,  (5)),/rom  the  east. 

East-Dene  (§47),  East-Danes. 

easteweard,  eastward. 

eastrihte  (eastryhte)  (§93,  (6)), 
eastward. 

Eastron,  pi.,  Easter. 

eaSe,  easily. 

eaSmodllce.  humbly. 

eaxl,  f.,  shoulder  [axle]. 

Ebreisc,  adj.,  Hebrew. 


ece,  eternal,  everlasting. 

ecg,  f.,  sword  [edge]. 

edor,    m.,    enclosure,    dwelling', 

nom.  pi.,  ederas. 
edrum,  see  aedre. 
efne,  adv.,  just,  only  [evenly]. 
eft,  adv.,  again,  afterwards  [aft], 
egesa,  m.,fear,  terror  [awe]. 
f  lien,  n. ,  strength,  courage ;  mid 

fine  =  boldly ;  on  fine  147,  17 

=  mightily,  suddenly,  or  in  their 

(earls''')  strength  (prime). 
fllen-meerSu,  i.,  fame  for  strength, 

feat  of  strength. 

fllen-weorc,  n.,  feat  of  strength. 
fllenwodnis,  f.,  zeal,  fervor. 
fllor-gast,  m.,  inhuman  monster 

[alien  ghost], 
fin,  f.,  ell  [el-bow]. 
fine,  see  fllen. 
flra,    adj.    comparative,   another 

[*f  le  cognate  with  Lat.  alius]  ; 

on    flran    mfn    139,    14  =  in 

another  man. 
emnlgng    (-lang),  equally  long; 

on    emnlange  —  along   (§    94, 

(4)). 

fnde,  m.,  end. 

fndebyrdnes,  f.,  order. 

fnde-deeg,  m.,  end-day,  day  of 
death. 

fnde-laf,  f.,  last  remnant  [end- 
leaving]. 

fngel,  m.,  angel  [Lat.  angelus]. 

^nglafeld  (§  51),  m.,  Englefield 
(in  Berkshire). 

Engle  (§  47),  m.  pi.,  Angles. 

Englisc,  adj.,  English;  on  3j!ng- 
lisc  117,  18  and  19  =  in  English, 
into  English. 

Engliscgereord,  n.,  English  lan- 
guage. 


Grlossary. 


163 


fnt,  m.,  giant. 

eode,  see  gan. 

eodorcan  (§  130),  ruminate. 

eorl,  in.,  earl,  warrior,  chieftain. 

eorlic,  earl-like,  noble. 

eorS-draca,  m.,  dragon  [earth- 
drake]. 

eorSe,  f.,  earth. 

eorS-r^ced,  n.,  earth-hall. 

eorSscraef.  n.,  earth-cave,  grave. 

eoten.  m.,  giant,  monster. 

eow.  see  3u. 

Eowland,  n. ,  bland  (an  island  in 
the  Baltic  Sea). 

erian  (§  125),  plow  [to  ear]. 

Estland,  n. ,  land  of  the  Estas  (on 
the  eastern  coast  of  the  Baltic 
Sea). 

Estmeje.  m.,  Frische  Haff. 

Estum,  dat.  pi.,  the  Estas. 

etan  (§  115),  eat  [ort]. 

f  ttan  (§  127) ,  graze  [etan]. 

eSel,  m.,  territory,  native  land 
[allodial]. 

eSel-weard,  m.,  guardian  of  his 
country. 

P. 

faec,  n.,  interval,  space. 
feeder  (§  68,  (2)),  m.,  father. 
f  aegen.  fain,  glad,  exultant. 
faeger  (faeger),/azr,  beautiful. 
feelsian  (§  130),  cleanse. 
faerlice,  suddenly  [feer  =  fear~\. 
tseat.fast,  held  fast. 
feeste,  adv.,  fast,  firmly. 
faestnung,  f.,  security,  safety. 
feet,  n.,  vessel  [wine-fat,  vat], 
faetels,     m.,     vessel;    ace.     pi., 

faetels. 
feeSrn,       m.,      embrace,      bosom 

[fathom  =  the    space  embraced 

by  the  extended  arms]. 


fag  (fan),  hostile;  he  wees  fag 
wi3  God  142,  18  =  he  icas  hos- 
tile to  God. 

fah  (fag),  variegated,  orna- 
mented. 

Falster,  Falster  (island  in  the 
Baltic  Sea). 

fandian  (§  130),  try,  investigate 
[find  an]. 

faran  (§  116),  go  [fare]. 

feallan  (§  117),  fall,  flow. 

fealu,  fallow,  pale,  dark;  nom. 
pi.  m.,  fealwe. 

feawe  (lea,  feawa),  pl.,/ew. 

fela  (indeclinable),  much,  many 
(with  gen.). 

feld  (§51),  m.,  field. 

fell  (fel),  n.,  fell,  skin,  hide. 

feng,  see  fon. 

ffn-hli3.  n.,  fen-slope. 

f^n-hop.  n.,  fen-retreat. 

feoh,  n.,  cattle,  properly  [fee] ; 
gen.  and  dat.  sing.,  feos,  feo. 

feohgifre,  greedy  of  property, 
avaricious. 

feohtan  (§  110),.tfgr/^. 

feol.  see  feallan. 

feond  (§  68,  (3)),  m.,  enemy, 
fiend. 

feond-grap,  f.,  fiend-grip. 

feor  (§  96,  (4)),  adj.,  far,  far  from 
(with  dat.). 

feor,  adv.,/«r,  far  back  (time). 

feorh,  m.,  n.,  life. 

feorh-bfnn,  f.,  life-wound,  mortal 
wound. 

feorh-lfgu,  f.,  laying  down  of  life. 
(See  p.  146,  Note  on  1.  13.) 

feorh  -seoc,  life -sick,  mortally 
wounded. 

feorm  (tiorm),  f.,  use,  benefit 
(/oo<?,  provisions}  [farm]. 


164 


Glossary. 


feormiaii  (§  130),  eat,  devour. 

feorran,  from  afar. 

feowertig,  forty ;  gen.,  feower- 

tiges  (§  91,  Note  1). 
ferhS    (ferS),    m.,   heart,    mind, 

spirit. 
f^rian  (§   125),   carry,   transport 

[to  ferry]  ;  ff  rede  in  forSwege 

152,  5  =  carried  away. 
fers,  n.,  verse  [Lat.  versus]. 
ferae,  fresh. 
ferSloca     (ferhS-),     m.,     heart, 

mind,  spirit  [heart-locker]. 
fgt,  see  fot. 
fetor,  f.,  fetter  [fot]  ;  instr.  pi., 

feterum. 

feSer,  f.,  feather,'  ace.  pi.,  feSra. 
fierd,  f.,  English  army  [faran]. 
fif,  five. 

fiftiene,  fifteen. 
fiftig,  fifty;   gen-    sing.,   fiftiges 

(§  91,  Note  1)  ;  dat.  pi.,  flfte- 

gum  (§  91,  Note  3). 
findan  (§  110),  find. 
finger,  m.,  finger. 
Finnas,  in.  pi.,  Fins. 
fiorm.  see  feorm. 
firas,  m.  pi.,  men  [feorh]  ;  gen. 

pi.,  fira  ;  dat.  pi.,  firum. 
firrest  (fiercest),  see  feor  (§  96, 

(4)). 

first,  m.,  time,  period. 
fiscaS  (fiscnaS),  m.,  fishing. 
fiscere,  m.,  fisherman. 
fiscnaS.  see  fiscaS. 
fleon  (§  118,  II.),  flee. 
fleotan  (§  109),  float. 
fl^t,  n.,  floor  of  the  hall. 
flod,  m.,  flood,  wave. 
folc,  n.,  folk,  people. 
f olc-cwen,  f . ,  folk-queen. 
folc-cyning,  m.,  folk-king. 


folcgefeoht,  n.,  folk-fight,  battle, 

general  engagement. 
fold-bold,  n.,  earth-building,  hall. 
folde,    f.,    earth,    land,    country 

[feld]. 

folm,  f.,  hand  [felan  =  feel]. 
fon  (§  118),  seize,  capture,  take 

[fang]  ;  to  rice  fon  —  come  to 

(ascend)  the  throne. 
for  (§  94,   (1)),  for,  on  account 

of;   for  3am   (3e),    for  Son 

(Se),  because  ;  for  Son,  for  8y, 

for  Seem  (for-Sam).  therefore. 
for,  see  faran. 

forbaeruau   (§   127),    burn  thor- 
oughly   [for  is   intensive,   like 

Lat.  per]. 
forgiefan  (-gifan)  (§  115),  give, 

grant. 
forhfsrgian   (§   130),    harry,   lay 

waste. 

forhogdnis,  f.,  contempt. 
forht,  fearful,  afraid. 
forhwaega,  about,  at  least. 
forlaetan  (§  117),  abandon,  leave. 
forlet,  forleton,  see  forlaetan. 
forma,  first;    forman  siSe,   the 

first  time  (instr.). 
forniman  (§  114),  take  off,  destroy. 
forspeiidaii      (§     127),      spend, 

squander. 
forstpndan  (-standan)  (§  116), 

understand. 
forswapan  (§  117),  sweep  away ; 

pret.  3d  sing,  indie.,  forswgop. 
forswfrian     (§     116),    forswear 

(with   dat.);    past   part.,    for- 

sworen. 

forS,  forth,  forward. 
forSolian  (§  130),  miss,  go  with- 
out (with  dat.)  [not  to  thole  or 

experience]. 


Glossary. 


165 


f orSweg,  m. ,  way  forth  ;  in  forS- 

wege,  away. 
fot  (§  68,  (1)),  m.,foot. 
Freena,  m.,  Frene. 
frsetwe,    f.    pi.,   fretted    armor, 

jewels  [fret]. 
fram,  see  frym. 
frea,  in.,  lord,  Lord. 
frea-drihten,  m.,  lord,  master. 
frefran   (§   130),    console,    cheer 

[froforj. 
frfmde,     strange,    foreign;     3a 

fremdan.  the  strangers. 
fr^mman    (§    125),    accomplish, 

perform,  support  [to  frame], 
fremsumnes  (-nis),  f.,  kindness, 

benefit. 
freo  (frio),/ree;  gen.  pi.,  freora 

(friora). 

freedom,  m.,  freedom. 
freolic,  noble  [free-like]. 
freomeeg,  m.,free  kinsman. 
freond  (§  68,  (3)),  m.,  friend. 
freondleas,  friendless. 
freondlice,  in  a  friendly  manner. 
freorig,  cold,  chill  [frSoran]. 
friora,  see  freo. 

friS,  in.,  n., peace,  security  [bel-/j-y]. 
frod,  old,  sage,  prudent. 
frofor,    f.,    comfort,   consolation, 

alleviation ;  fyrena  frofre  137,  7 

=  as  an  alleviation  of  outrages 

(dat.). 

frqm  (fram)  (§  94,  (l)),/rom,  by. 
frQm,  adv. ,  away,  forth. 
fruma,     m.,     origin,     beginning 

[frpm]. 

frumsceaft,  f.,  creation. 
fugela,  see  fugol. 
fugelere,  m.,  fowler. 
fugol    (fugel),    m.,   foiol,    bird; 

gen.  pi.,  fugela. 


ful,  n.,  cup,  beaker. 

ful,  foul. 

fuliaii  (§  130),  grow  foul,  decom- 
pose. 

fuU  (ful),  adj.,  full  (with  gen.)  ; 
be  fullan,  fully,  perfectly. 

full  (ful)  adv.,  fully,  very. 

fultum,  m..  help. 

furSor  (furSur),  adv.,  further. 

furSum,  adv.,  even. 

fyl8,  see  feallan. 

fyren  (tiren),  f.,  crime,  violence, 
outrage. 

fyrhtu,  f.,  fright,  terror;  dat. 
sing.,  fyrhtu. 

fyrst,  adj.,  superlative,  first,  chief. 

fysan  (§  126),  make  ready,  pre- 
pare [fus  =  ready~\  ;  guSe  ge- 
fysed  137,  9  =  ready  for  battle. 

G. 

gad,  n.,  lack. 

gaest.  see  gast. 

gafol,  n.,  tax,  tribute. 

galan  (§  116),  sing  [nightingale]. 

games,  f.,  lust,  impurity. 

gan  (§  134),  go. 

gar,  in.,  spear  [gore,  gar-fish]. 

gar-wiga,  m.,  spear-warrior. 

gast  (geest),  m.,  spirit,  ghost. 

gastlic  (geestlic),  ghastly,  ter- 
rible. 

ge,  and;  see  aegSer. 

ge,  ye ;  see  Su. 

geador,  together. 

geaemetigian.  (§  130),  disengage 
from  (with  ace.  of  person  and 
gen.  of  thing)  [empty]. 

geaernan  (§  127),  gain  by  run- 
ning [iernan]. 

geap,  spacious. 


166 


Glossary. 


gear,  n.,  year ;  gen.  pi.,  geara.  is 
used  adverbially  =  of  yore,  for- 
merly. 

geardeeg,  m.,  day  of  yore. 

geare  (gearo,  gearwe),  readily, 
well,  clearly  [yarely]. 

Geat,  m.,  a  Geat,  the  Geat  (i.e. 
Beowulf). 

Geatas,  m.  pi.,  the  Geats  (a  peo- 
ple of  South  Sweden). 

Geat-mecgas,  m.  pi.,  Geat  men 
(=  the  fourteen  who  accom- 
panied Beowulf  to  Heorot) . 

gebeorscipe.  m.,  banquet,  enter- 
tainment. 

gebetan  (§  126),  make  amends 
for  [bot]. 

gebidan  (§  102),  wait,  bide  one's 
time  (intrans.)  ;  endure,  experi- 
ence (trans.,  with  ace.). 

gebind,  n.,  commingling. 

gebindan  (§  110),  bind. 

gebreowan  (§  109),  brew. 

gebrowen,  see  gebreowan. 

gebud,  gebun,  see  buan  (§  126, 
Note  2). 

gebyrd,  n.,  rank,  social  distinc- 
tion. 

geceosan  (§  109),  choose,  decide. 

gecnawan  (§  117),  know,  under- 
stand. 

gecoren,  see  geceosan. 

gecringan  (§  110),  fall,  die 
[cringe]. 

gedaelan  (§  126),  deal  out,  give; 
deaSe  gedselde  152,  7  =  ap- 
portioned to  death  (dat.),  or, 
tore  (?)  in  death  (instr.). 

gedafenian  (§  130),  become,  befit, 
suit  (impersonal,  usually  with 
dat.,  but  with  ace.  112,  10). 

gedigan  (§  126) ,  endure,  survive. 


gedon  (§  135),  do,  cause,  effect. 

gedraeg,  n.,  company. 

gedreosan  (§  109),  fall,  fail. 

gedriht  (gedryht),  n.,  band, 
troop. 

gedrogen,  see  dreogan. 

gedrync,  n.,  drinking. 

geendian  (§  130),  end,  finish. 

gefaran  (§  116),  go,  die. 

gefea,  m.,  joy. 

gefeaht,  see  gefeohtan. 

gefeh.  see  gefeon. 

gefeng,  see  gefon. 

gefeoht,  n.,  fight,  battle. 

gefeohtan  (§  IIQ),  fight. 

gefeon  (§  118,  v.),  rejoice  at  (with 
dat.)  ;  pret.  3d  sing.,  gefeah, 
gefeh. 

gefera.  m.,  companion,  comrade 
[co-f  arer] . 

geflieman  (§  126),  put  to  flight 
[neon]. 

gefohten,  see  gefeohtan. 

gefon  (§  118,  vii.),  seize. 

gefor,  see  gefaran. 

gefraege.  n.,  hearsay,  report; 
mine  gefreege  (instr.)  141,  7 
—  as  I  have  heard  say,  accord- 
ing to  my  information. 

gefremman  (§  125),  perform,  ac- 
complish, effect. 

gefultumian  (§  130),  help  [ful- 
tum]. 

gefylce,  n.,  troop,  division  [folc]  ; 
dat.  pi.,  gefylcum,  gefylcium. 

gefyllan  (§  127),  fill  (with  gen.)  ; 
past  part,  pi.,  f.,  gefylda. 

gegl?ngan  (§  127),  adorn. 

gehatland,  n.,  promised  land 
[gehatan  =  to  promise']. 

gehealdan  (§  117),  hold,  main- 
tain. 


Glossary. 


167 


gehieran    (gehyran)     (§    126), 

hear. 

gehiersumnes,  f.,  obedience. 

gehola.  m.,  protector  [helan]. 

gehwa  (§  77,  Note),  each;  on 
healia  gehwone  142,  7  (see 
Note  140,  15.  Observe  that  the 
pron.  may,  as  here,  be  masc. 
and  the  gen.  fern.). 

gehwee9er  (§  77,  Note),  each, 
either,  both. 

gehwylc  (gehwilc)  (§  77,  Note), 
each  (with  gen.  pi.  See  Note 
140,  15). 

gehwyrfan  (§  127),  convert, 
change. 

gehydan  (§  126),  hide,  conceal, 
consign. 

gehygd,  f.,  n.,  thought, purpose. 

gehyran,  see  gehieran. 

gehyrnes,  f.,  hearing;  eal  8a 
he  in  gehyrnesse  geleornian 
meahte  115, 14  =  all  things  that 
he  could  learn  by  hearing. 

geleedan  (§  126),  lead. 

geleered,  part. -adj.,  learned ;  su- 
perlative, gelaeredest. 

gelafian  (§  130),  lave. 

gelenge.  along  of,  belonging  to 
(with  dat.). 

geleornian  (-liornian)  (§  130), 
learn. 

gelice,  likewise  ;  in  like  manner 
to  (with  dat.). 

geliefan  (gelyfan)  (§  126),  be- 
lieve ;  Seet  heo  on  aenigne  eorl 
gelyfde  137,  6  =  that  she  be- 
lieved in  any  earl. 

gelimpan  (§  110),  happen,  be 
fulfilled. 

gelimplic.  proper,  fitting. 

gelyfan,  see  geliefan. 


gelyfed,  weak,  infirm  [left 
(hand)]. 

gemde.  see  giemaii. 

gemet.  n.,  meter,  measure,  ability 

gemetan  (§126),  meet. 

gempn.  see  gemunan. 

gemunan  (§  136),  remember; 
indie,  pres.  1st  and  3d  sing., 
gem9n  ;  pret.  sing.,  gemunde. 

gemynd,  n.,  memory,  memorial; 
to  gemyndum  147,  5  =  as  a 
memorial. 

gemyndgian  (-mynian)  (§  130), 
remember ;  mid  nine  gemynd- 
gade  115,  15  =  he  treasured  in 
his  memory;  gemyne  masiSo 
138,  15  =  be  mindful  of  glory 
(imperative  2d  sing.). 

gemyndig,  mindful  of  (\v\ih  gen.). 

genap,  see  genipan. 

geneahhe,  enough,  often ;  geneh- 
ost,  superlative,  very  often. 

genip,  n.,  mist,  darkness. 

genipan  (§  102),  grow  dark. 

geniwian  (§  130),  renew. 

genoh,  enough. 

genumen,  see  niman. 

geoc,  n.,  yoke. 

geocor,  dire,  sad. 

geogoS,  f.,  youth,  young  people, 
young  warriors.  (See  duguS.) 

geond  (giond)  (§  94,  (2)), 
throughout  [yond]. 

geondhweorfan  (  §  110),  pass 
over,  traverse,  recall;  Sonne 
maga  gemynd  mod  geond- 
hw^eorfeS  150,  15  —  then  his 
mind  recalls  the  memory  of  kins- 
men. 

geondsceawian  (§  130) ,  survey, 
review ;  georne  geondsceawaS 
150,  16  =  eagerly  surveys  them. 


168 


Glossary. 


geond8enc(e)an  (§  128),  think 
over,  consider. 

geong  (§  96,  (2)),  young,-  gien- 
gest,  (gingest),  superlative, 
youngest,  latest,  last. 

geong  =  gqng,  see  g9ngan  (im- 
perative 2d  sing. ). 

geong  (giong),  see  §9ngan  (pret. 
3d  sing.). 

georn  (giorn),  eager,  desirous, 
zealous,  sure  [yearn]. 

georne,  eagerly,  certainly  ;  wiste 
Se  geornor  143,  5  =  knew  the 
more  certainly. 

geornfulnes,  f.,  eagerness,  zeal. 

geornlice,  eagerly,  attentively. 

geornor,  see  georne. 

gerecednes.  f.,  narration  [r§c- 
can]. 

gerisenllc.  suitable,  becoming. 

geryman(§  126),  extend,  (trans.) 
[rum]. 

gesaeliglic.  happy,  blessed  [silly]. 

gesamnode,  see  ges9mnian. 

gesceaft.  f.,  creature,  creation, 
destiny  [scieppan]. 

gesceap,  n.,  shape,  creation,  des- 
tiny [scieppan]. 

gescieldan  (§  127),  shield,  de- 
fend. 

gesealde,  see  gesellan. 

geseglian  (§  130),  sail. 

geselda,  m.,  comrade. 

geseUan  (§  128),  give. 

geseon  (geslon)  (§  118),  see, 
observe;  pres.  indie.  3d  sing., 
gesiho1. 

geset,  n.,  habitation,  seat. 

gesettan  (§  127),  set,  place,  estab- 
lish. 

gesewen.  see  seon.  geseon  (past 
part.). 


gesewenllc,  seen,  visible  [seen- 
like]. 

gesiglan  (§  127),  sail. 

gesihS.  see  geseon. 

gesittan  (§  115,  Note2),  srt(trans., 
as  to  sit  a  horse,  to  sit  a  boat, 
etc.);  sit,  sit  down  (intrans.). 

geslaegen,  see  slean  (§  118). 

gespmnian  (§  130),  assemble, 
collect. 

gesgmnung,  f.,  collection,  as- 
sembly. 

gestah.  see  gestlgan. 

gestaSelian  (§  130),  establish, 
restore  [standan]. 

gesteal,  n.,  establishment,  foun- 
dation [stall]. 

gestlgan  (§  102),  ascend,  go 
[stile,  stirrup,  sty  ( =  a  rising 
on  the  eye)]. 

gestrangian  (§  130),  strengthen. 

gestreon,  n.,  property. 

gestrynan  (§  126),  obtain,  ac- 
quire [gestreonj. 

gesweorcan  (§  110),  grow  dark, 
become  sad ;  For  Son  ic  geS$n- 
can  ne  maeg  geond  Sas  woruld 
for  hwan  modsefa  min  ne 
gesweorce  151,  3-4  =  There- 
fore in  this  world  I  may  not 
understand  wherefore  my  mind 
does  not  grow  "  black  as  night" 
(Brooke.) 

geswican  (§  102),  cease,  cease 
from  (with  gen.). 

geteel,  n.,  something  told,  nar 
rative. 

getnuna,  m.,  troop,  division. 

geSanc.  m.,  n.,  thought. 

geSeah,  see  geoicgan. 

ge3enc(e)an  (§  128),  think,  re- 
member, understand,  consider. 


G-lossary. 


169 


geSeodan  (§  126),  join. 
geSeode  (-Siode),  n.,  language, 

tribe. 
geSeodnis,  f.,  association;  but  in 

1 12,  2  this  word  is  used  to  render 

the  Lat.  appetitus  =  desire. 
ge3icg(e)an    (§>  115,   Note    2), 

take,   receive;    pret.    indie.    3d 

sing.,  geSeah. 
geSungen,  part.-adj.,  distinguished, 

excellent  [Seon,  to  thrive]. 
geSyldig,  patient  [Solian]. 
geweald    (gewald),  n.,   control, 

possession,  power  [wield]. 
geweorc,  n.,  work,  labor. 
geweorSian    (§  130),   honor  [to 

attribute  worth  to]. 
gewician  (§  130),  dwell. 
gewin(n),  n.,  strife,  struggle. 
gewindan  (§  HQ).flee  [wend]. 
gewissian  (§  130),  guide,  direct. 
gewltan  (§  102),  go,  depart. 
geworht,  see  gewyrcan. 
gewrit,  n.,  writing,  Scripture. 
gewunian  (§  130),  be  accustomed, 

be  wont. 
gewyrc(e)an     (§    128),    work, 

create,  make,  produce. 
gid(d),  n.,  icord,  speech. 
giefan  (§  115),  give. 
giefstol,  m.,  gift-stool,  throne. 
giefu  (gifu),  f.,  gift. 
gielp  (gilp),  m.,  n.,  boast  [yelp]. 
gieman    (geman)    (§    126),    en- 
deavor, strive. 
giet  (git,  gyt),  yet,  still. 
gif  (gyf),  if  [not  related  to  give}. 
gifeSe  (gyfeSe),  given,  granted. 
gilp,  see  gielp. 
gilp-cwide,   m.,   boasting  speech 

[yelp-  speech]. 
gingest,  see  geong  (adj.). 


giohSo  (geh8u),  f.,  care,  sorrow, 
grief. 

giu  (in),  formerly,  of  old. 

glaed  (glaed),  glad. 

gleaw,  wise,  prudent. 

gliwstaef,  m.,  glee,  joy ;  instr.  pi. 
(used  adverbially),  gliwstafum 
150,  16=  joyfully. 

God,  m.,  God. 

god  (§  96,  (3)),  good;  mid  his 
godum  115,  12  =  with  his  pos- 
sessions (goods). 

godcund,  divine  [God]. 

godcundlice,  divinely. 

gold,  n.,  gold. 

gold-eeht,  f . ,  gold  treasure. 

gold-fah,  gold-adorned. 

gold-hroden,  part.-adj.,  gold- 
adorned. 

goldwine.  m.,  prince,  giver  of 
gold,  lord  [gold-friend], 

gomel  (gomol),  old,  old  man. 

g9ngan  (gangan)  (§  117),  go 
[gang]  ;  imperative  2d  sing., 

•  geong;  pret.  sing.,  geong, 
glong,  geng ;  past  part.,  ge- 
g9ngen,  gegangen.  The  most 
commonly  used  pret.  is  code, 
which  belongs  to  gan  (§  134). 

Gotland,  n.,  Jutland  (in  Ohthere's 
Second  Voyage),  Gothland  (in 
Wulfstan's  Voyage). 

gram,  grim,  angry,  fierce,  the 
angry  one. 

grap,  f.,  grasp,  clutch,  claw. 

gretan  (§  126),  greet,  attack, 
touch. 

growan  (§  117,  (2)),  grow. 

gryre-leoS,  n.,  terrible  song 
[grisly  lay]. 

guma,  in.,  man,  hero  [groom; 
see  §  65,  Note  1]. 


170 


G-lossary. 


guS,  f.,  war,  battle. 

guS-bill,  n.,  sword  [war-bill]. 

guS-geweede,  n.,  armor  [war- 
weeds]. 

guS-hreS,  f. ,  war-fame. 

guS-wine,  m.,  sword [ war-friend]. 

gyddian  (§  130),  speak  formally, 
chant  [giddy  ;  the  original  mean- 
ing of  giddy  was  mirthful,  as 
when  one  sings]. 

gyf,  see  gif. 

gyfeSe,  see  gifeSe. 

gyldan  (gieldan)  (§  110),  pay ; 
indie.  3d  sing.,  gylt. 

gylden,  golden  [gold]. 

H. 

habban  (§  133),  have. 

had,  m.,  order,  rank,  office,  de- 
gree [-hood, -head]. 

naefta.  m.,  captive. 

hsegel  (hagol),  m.,  hail;  instr. 
sing.,  hagle. 

haeglfaru,  f.,  hail-storm  [hail- 
faring]. 

haele,  see  hseleS. 

heel,  f.,  hail,  health,  good  luck. 

heeled1  (heele),  m.,  hero,  warrior. 

hset,  see  hatan. 

haeSeii.  heathen. 

HeeSum  (set  HeeSum),  Haddeby 
(=  Schleswig}. 

hal,  hale,  whole. 

halettan  (§  127),  greet,  salute 
[to  hail]. 

Halfdene.  Halfdane  (proper 
name). 

halga.  m.,  saint. 

Halgoland,  Halgoland  (in  ancient 
Norway). 

halig,  holy. 

halignes,  f.,  holiness. 


ham,  m.,  home ;  dat.  sing.,  hame, 
ham  (p.  104,  Note)  ;  used  ad- 
verbially in  ham  code  112,  18 
=  went  home. 

hand,  see  hQnd. 

har,  hoary,  gray. 

hat,  hot. 

hatan  (§  117,  Note  2),  call,  name, 
command;  pret.  sing.,  heht, 
het. 

hatheort,  hot-hearted. 

hatte,  see  hatan. 

he,  heo,  hit  (§  53),  he,  she,  it. 

heafod.  n.,  head. 

heah  (§  96,  (2)),  high;  ace.  sing. 
m.,  heanne. 

heah-sele,  m.,  high  hall. 

heahSuiigen.  highly  prosperous, 
aristocratic  [heah  +  past  part, 
of  Seon  (§  118)]. 

healdan  (§  117),  hold,  govern, 
possess ;  144,  9  =  hold  up,  sus- 
tain. 

healf,  adj.,  half. 

healf,  f.,  half,  side,  shore. 

heall,  f.,  hall. 

heals,  m.,  neck. 

hean,  abject,  miserable. 

heanne,  see  heah. 

heard,  hard. 

heard  -hicgende,  brave-minded 
[hard-thinking]. 

heann-scaSa,  m.,  harmful  foe 
[harm-scather] . 

hearpe,  f.,  harp. 

heaSo-deor,  battle-brave. 

heaSo-meere,  famous  in  battle. 

heaSo-wylm,  m.,  flame -surge, 
surging  of  fire  [battle-welling]. 

heawan  (§  117),  hew,  cut. 

hejbban,  hof,  hofon,  gehafen 
(§  117),  heave,  lift,  raise. 


Glossary. 


171 


hefig,  heavy,  oppressive. 

heht.  see  hatan. 

helan  (§  114),  conceal. 

heU,  f.,  /je«. 

helm,  m.,  helmet. 

Helmingas,    m.     pi.,     Helmings 

(Wealtheow,  Hrothgar's  queen, 

is  a  Helming). 
help,  f.,  help. 

helpan  (§  110),  help  (with  dat.). 
heofon,  in.,  heaven. 
heofonlic,  heavenly. 
heofonrice,  n. ,  kingdom  of  heaven. 
heold,  see  healdan. 
heolstor    (-ster),   n.,    darkness, 

concealment,  cover  [holster]. 
heora  (hiera),  see  he1, 
heord,     f.,     care,     guardianship 

[hoard]. 

heoro-dreorig,     bloody    [sword- 
dreary]. 
Heorot,  Heorot,  Hart  (the  famous 

hall  which  Hrothgar  built). 
heorte,  f.,  heart. 
her,  here,  hither  ;  in  the  Chronicle 

the  meaning  frequently  is  at  this 

date,  in  this  year:  99,  1. 
here,  m.,  Danish  army. 
herenis.  f . ,  praise. 
hejgian    (§    130),    raid,    harry, 

ravage  [h^re]. 

hergung.  f . ,  harrying,  plundering. 
herian  (h^rigean)  (§  125),  praise. 
hersumedon,  see  hiersumian. 
het,  see  hatan. 
hider  (hieder),  hither. 
hiera,  see  he. 
hieran    (hyran)    (§   126),   hear, 

belong. 
hierde,   m.,  shepherd,   instigator 

[keeper  of  a  herd~\. 
hierdeboc,    f.,  pastoral  treatise 


[shepherd-book,  a  translation  of 
Lat.  Cura  Pastorales'], 

hierra.  see  heah. 

hiersumian  (hyr-,  her-)  (§  130), 
obey  (with  dat.). 

hige  (hyge),  m.,  mind,  heart. 

hige-Sihtig,  bold-hearted. 

hild,  f.,  battle. 

hilde-deor,  battle-brave. 

hilde-mecg,  m.,  warrior. 

hilde-saed.  battle-sated. 

hin-fus,  eager  to  be  gone  [hence- 
ready]. 

hira.  see  he. 

hlsew  (hlaw),  m.,  mound,  burial 
mound  [LudZorc  and  other  place- 
names,  low  meaning  hill']. 

hlaford.  m.,  lord,  master  [loaf- 
ward?]. 

hleahtor,  m.,  laughter. 

hleo.  m.,  refuge,  protector  [lee]. 

hlitiau  (§  130),  rise,  tower. 

hlyn,  m.,  din,  noise. 

hlynsian  (§  130),  resound. 

hof,  n.,  court,  abode. 

hogode,  see  hycgaii. 

holm,  m.,  sea,  ocean. 

h9iid  (hand),  f.,  hand;  on  geh- 
•M73e8re  hQnd,  on  both  sides. 

hoid.  m.,  n. ,  hoard,  treasure. 

hordcofa,  m.,  breast,heart  [hoard- 
chamber]. 

hors.  n.,  horse. 

horshwael,  m.,  walrus. 

hreedwyrde,  hasty  of  speech 
[breed  =  quick]. 

hraegel,  n.,  garment;  dat.  sing., 
hraegle. 

hi  an.  m.,  reindeer. 

hraSe.  quickly,  soon  [ra^-er]. 

hreo  (hreoh),  rough,  cruel,  sad. 

hreosan  (§  109),  fall. 


172 


Grlossary. 


hreran  (§  126),  stir. 

hreSer,  m.,  n.,  breast,  purpose; 
dat.  sing.,  hreSre. 

brim,  m.,  rime,  hoarfrost. 

hrimceald,  rime-cold. 

bring,  m.,  ring,  ring-mail. 

hri3,  f.  (?),  snow-storm. 

hrof,  m.,  roof. 

Hrones  naess.  literally  Whale's 
Ness,  whale's  promontory  ;  see 
naess. 

hruse,  f.,  earth  [hreosan:  de- 
posit]. 

hryre,  ra.,  fall,  death  [hreosan]. 

hrySer,  n.,  cattle  [rinder-pest]. 

hrySig,  ruined  (?),  storm-beaten; 
nom.  pi.  m.,  hrySge. 

hu,  how. 

Humbre.  f.,  river  Number. 

bund,  hundred. 

hunig,  n.,  honey. 

hunta,  m.,  hunter. 

huntoS  (-ta3),  m.,  hunting. 

hum,  adv.,  about. 

bus,  n.,  house. 

hwa,  hwaet  (§  74),  who  ?  what? 
swa  hwaet  swa  (§77,  Note), 
whatsoever ;  indefinite,  any  one, 
anything;  for  hwan  (instr.), 
v)h  ere  fore. 

hwael,  m.,  whale. 

hwaelhunta.  m.,  whale-hunter. 

hwaelhuntaS,  m.,  whale-fishing. 

hwser,  where  ?  h  waei  .  .  .  swa, 
wheresoever ;  wel  h  wser. 
nearly  everywhere. 

hwaethwugu.  something. 

hweeSer,  whether,  which  of  two? 

hwaeSre,  however,  nevertheless. 

hwene,  see  hwon. 

hweorfan  (§  110),  turn,  go. 

hwider,  whither. 


hwil,  f.,  while,  time;  ealle  35 

hwile  3e,    all  the  while  that; 

hwflum  (instr.  pi.),  sometimes. 
hwilc    (hwylc,   hwelc)    (§  74, 

Note  1),  which  ?  what  ? 
hwon,  n.,  a  trifle;  hwene  (iustr. 

sing.),  somewhat,  a  little. 
hwpnan.  when. 
hy,  see  Me. 
hycgan   (§  132),  think,  resolve; 

pret.  3d  sing.,  hogode. 
hyd,  f.,  hide,  skin. 
hyge,  see  hige. 
hyra  (hiera),  see  he. 
hyran,  see  hieran. 
hyrde.  see  hierde. 
hys  (his),  see  he. 
hyt  (hit),  see  he. 


ic  (§  72),  /. 

idel,  idle,  useless,  desolate. 

ides,  f.,  woman,  lady. 

ieldra,  adj.,  see  eald. 

ieldra,  m.,  an  elder,  parent,  an- 
cestor. 

iernan  (yrnan)  (§  112),  run. 

iglqnd  (igland),  n.,  island. 

ilca  (ylca),  the  same  [of  that  ilk]. 

Ilfing,  the  Elbing. 

in,  in,  into  (with  dat.  and  ace.)  ; 
in  on,  in  on,  to,  toicard. 

inbryrdnis  (-nes),  f.,  inspiration, 
ardor. 

indryhten,  very  noble. 

ing9ng,  in.,  entrance. 

innan,  adv.,  within,  inside;  on 
ianan.  inthin. 

innanbordes,  adv. -gen.,  within 
borders,  at  home. 

inne,  adv.,  within,  inside. 

intinga,  in.,  cause,  sake. 


Glossary. 


173 


inweardllce,  inwardly,  fervently. 

inwid-sorg  (inwit-sorh),  f.,  sor- 
row caused  by  an  enemy. 

inwit-Sanc,  m.,  hostile  intent. 

Ir  aland,  n. ,  Ireland  (but  in 
Ohthere's  Second  Voyage,  Ice- 
land is  probably  meant). 

iren,  n.,  iron,  sword;  gen.  pi., 
irenna,  irena. 

iren-b^nd,  in.,  f.,  iron-band. 

iUy  see  giu. 

K. 

kynerice,  see  cynerice. 
kyning,  see  cyning. 
kyrtel,  m.,  kirtle,  coat. 

L. 

Laeden,  Latin. 
LeedengeSeode     (-Slode),     n., 

Latin  language. 
Leedenware  (§  47),  m.  pi.,  Latin 

people,  Romans. 
leefan  (§  126),  leave. 
Isege,  see  licgan. 
Leeland.   n.,   Laaland   (in   Den- 
mark), 
lain,  n.,   loan;  to  laene  121,  2 

=  as  a  loan. 
laene,  adj.,  as  a  loan,  transitory, 

perishable. 
leeran    (§    126),    teach,    advise, 

exhort  [lar]- 
leessa,  l*sta,  see  lytel. 
leestan   (§   127),    last,   hold  out 

(intrans.)  ;     perform,      achieve 

(trans.). 

leetan  (§  117),  let,  leave. 
laf,   f.,  something   left,    remnant, 

heirloom   (often  a  sword)  ;  to 

lafe,  as  a  remnant,  remaining. 


lagulad.  f. ,  sea  [lake-way,  lad  = 
leading,  direction,  way). 

land,  see 

lang.  see 

Langaland,  n.,  Langeland  (in 
Denmark). 

lar,  f.,  lore,  teaching. 

larcwide,  m., precept,  instruction, 
[cwide  <  c  weSan] . 

lareow,  m.,  teacher  [lar  +  8eow]. 

last,  m.,  track,  footprint  [shoe- 
maker's last] ;  on  last(e),  in  the 
track  of,  behind  (with  dat.). 

laS,  loathsome,  hateful. 

leas,  loose,  free  from,  bereft  of 
(with  gen.). 

leasung,  f.,  leasing,  deception, 
falsehood. 

IfCgan  (§  125,  Note),  lay. 

lefdon,  see  llefan. 

leger,n.,  lying  in,  illness  [licgan]. 

l§ng,  see  l9nge. 

Ifngra,  see  l9ng. 

leod.  m.,  prince,  chief. 

leod,  f., people,  nation  (the  plural 
has  the  same  meaning) . 

leod-scipe,  m.,  nation  [people- 
ship]. 

leof,  dear  [lief]. 

leoht,  adj.,  light. 

leoht,  n.,  light,  brightness. 

leornere,  m.,  learner,  disciple. 

leornian  (§  130),  learn. 

leornung  (liornung),  f.,  learn- 
ing. 

leoiS,  n.,  song  [lay?]. 

leoScreeft,  m.,  poetic  skill  [lay- 
craft]  . 

Ieo3sqng,  n.,  song, poem. 

let,  see  leetan. 

libban  (§  133),  live;  pres.  part., 
lifigende,  living,  alive. 


174 


Glossary. 


He,    n.,    body,  corpse   [lich-gate, 

Lichfield]. 
licgan  (§  115,  Note  2),  lie,  extend, 

flow,  lie  dead;  3d  sing,   indie. 

pres.,  ligeS.  113. 

1  ichama  (-h9ma) ,  m. ,  body  [body- 
covering]  . 
lician  (§  130),  please  (with  dat.) 

[like]. 
llc-sar,  n.,  body-sore,  wound  in 

the  body. 
Hefan    (lefan)    (§   126),  permit, 

allow  (with  dat.)  [grant  leave 

to]. 

lif,  n.,  life. 

lif-dagas,  m.  pi.,  life-days. 
lifigende,  see  libban. 
lig,  m. ,  flame,  Jire. 
ligeS.  see  licgan. 
lim,  n.,  limb. 
list,  f. ,  cunning  ;  dat.  pi.,  listum, 

is  used  adverbially  =  cunningly. 
IIS,  see  licgan. 
lof,  in.,  praise,  glory. 
Ignd  (land),  n.,  land,  country. 
Igng  (lang)  (§  96,  (2)),  long. 
Ignge  (lange)   (§  97,  (2)),  long; 

l$nge  on  daeg,  late  in  the  day. 
lufan,  see  lufu. 

lufian  (lufigean)  (§  131),  love. 
lufllce,  lovingly. 
luhi,  f.,  love;  dat.  sing,  (weak), 

lufan. 

lungre,  quickly. 

lust,  m.,  joy  [lust];  on  lust,  joy- 
fully. 
lyt,  indeclinable,  little,  few  (with 

partitive  gen.), 
lytel   (litel)    (§  96,  (2)),  little, 

small. 

M. 

ma,  see  micle  (§  97,  (2)). 


maeg.  see  magan. 

maeg.    m.,    kinsman ;    nom.   pl.( 

magas  (§  27,  (2)). 
masgen,  n.,  strength, power  [might 

and  maiii}. 
maegen-fllen,    n.,  main  strength, 

mighty  courage. 
msegS,  f.,  tribe. 

maegShad.  m.,  maidenhood,  vir- 
ginity. 
mael-gesceaft,  f.,  appointed  time 

[msel  =  meal,  time]. 
meeran   (§    126),   make  famous, 

honor. 

maere.  famous,  glorious,  notori- 
ous. 
meerSo     (maerSo,     maerS),     f., 

glory,  fame. 

masssepreost,  in.,  mass-priest. 
maest,  see  micel. 
magan  (§  137),  be  able,  may. 
magas,  see  maeg. 
magu  (mago),  m.,  son,  man. 
niaguSegn.  m.,  vassal,  retainer. 
man(n),  see  m9n(n). 
mancus,  m.,  mancus,  half-crown; 

gen.  pi.,  mancessa. 
mandsed,  f . ,  evil  deed. 
manig,  see  mpiiig. 
manigfeald,  see  mqnigfeald. 
mara.  see  micel. 
maSelian     (§     130),     harangue, 

speak. 
maSum     (maSSum),    in.,    gift, 

treasure,  jewel ;  gen.  pi.,  maSnia. 
maSSumgyfa.  m. ,  treasure-giver, 

lord. 
ma33um-wela,    m.,    wealth    of 

treasure. 
me,  see  ic. 

meaht,  f.,  might,  power. 
meahte.  see  magan. 


Glossary. 


175 


mearc,  f.,  boundary,  limit  [mark, 

march]. 
mearg  (mearh),  m.,  horse;  nom. 

pi.,  mearas. 
mearS,  in.,  marten. 
mec.  see  ic. 
medmicel,  moderately  large.,  short, 

brief. 

medu  (medo),  m.,  mead. 
medu-b^nc,  L,  mead-bench. 
medu-ful,  n.,  mead-cup. 
medu-heall,  f.,  mead-hall. 
m$n.  see  m9n(n). 
m^ngan  (§  127),  mingle,  mix. 
m^nigu  (m^nigeo),  f.,  multitude 

[many]. 

m^nniscnes,  f.,  humanity,  incar- 
nation [man]. 
meolc,  f.,  milk. 
Meore,  More  (in  Sweden). 
m^re,  m.,  lake,  mere,  sea  [mer- 
maid]. 

Meretun.  m.,  Merlon  (in  Surrey), 
metan  (§  126),  meet,  find. 
Metod  (Meotod,  Metud),   m., 

Creator,  God. 
metod-sceaft,  f . ,  appointed  doom, 

eternity. 
micel  (§  96,  (3)),  great,  mighty, 

strong,  large  [mickle]  ;   mara, 

more,  stronger,  larger. 
micle  (micele),  greatly,  much. 
miclum.  (§  93,  (4)),  greatly. 
mid,  with,  amid,  among  (with  dat. 

and  ace.). 
middangeard,    in.,   earth,   icorld 

[middle-yard]. 
middeweard,    midward,    toward 

the  middle. 

Mierce,  m.  pi.,  Mercians. 
mihte,  see  magan. 
mil,  f.,  mile  [Lat.  mille]. 


mildheortnes,  f.,  mild-hearted- 
ness,  mercy. 

milts,  f.,  mildness,  mercy. 

min  (§  76),  my,  mine. 

mislTc.  varioits. 

missenllc,  various. 

mod,  n. ,  mood,  mind,  courage. 

modcearig,  sorrowful  of  mind. 

modega,  modga,  see  modig. 

modgeSaiic.  m.,  purpose  of  mind. 

modig,  moody,  brave,  proud. 

modor.  f.,  mother. 

modsefa,  m.,  mind,  heart. 

m9n(n)  (man,  mann)  (§  68; 
§  70,  Note),  m.,  man,  one, 
person,  they. 

mona.  in.,  moon. 

monaS  (§  68,  (1),  Note),  m., 
month  [mona]  ;  dat.  sing., 
monSe. 

mQn(n)cynn,  n.,  mankind. 

mqndryhten,  in.,  liege  lord. 

mpniaii  (manian)  (§  130),  ad- 
monish. 

mqnig  (manig.  niyneg.  maenig), 
many. 

mqnigfeald  (manig-),  manifold, 
various. 

moiiSe.  see  monaS. 

mor,  m.,  moor. 

morgen,  m.,  morning ;  dat.  sing., 
morgen(n)e. 

morSor-bealu  (-bealo),  n.,  mur- 
der [murder-bale]  ;  see  Surfaiv 

moste.  see  motan. 

motan  (§  137),  may,  be  permitted, 
must. 

mund-gripe,  m.,  hand-grip. 

munuc,  m.,  monk  [Lat.  mona- 
chus] . 

munuchad,  m.,  monkhood,  mo- 
nastic rank. 


176 


Glossary. 


mii8.  m.,  mouth. 

myntan  (§  127),  be  minded,  in- 
tend; pret.  indie.  3d  sing., 
mynte. 

mynster,  n.,  monastery  [Lat. 
monasterium] ;  dat.  sing., 
mynstre. 

myre,  f.,  ware  [mearh]. 

myr8,  f.,  joy,  mirth;  modes 
myrSe  142,  17  =  with  joy  of 
heart. 

N. 

n5  (no),  not  [ne  5  =  n-ever}  ;  na 

ne,  «o£,  not  at  all. 
nabban  (p.  32,  Note),  not  to  have. 
naedre.  f.,  serpent,  adder. 
neefde,  see  nabban. 
nsefre,  never. 

naenig  (§  77),  no  one,  no,  none. 
naere.   naeren.  naeron.  see  §  40, 

Note  2. 

uses  =  ne  wees,  see  §  40,  Xote  2. 
naess,  in.,  ness,  headland. 
naht.  see  noht. 
nalaes    (nales),   not   at  all    [na 

ealles]. 

nam.  see  iiirnan. 
nama,  see  npma. 
namon,  see  niman. 
nan,  not  one,  no,  none  [ne  an], 
nanwuht,  n.,  nothing  [no  whit]. 
ne,  not. 
ne,  nor ;  ne  .  .  .  ne,  neither  .  .  . 

nor. 

neah  (§  96,  (4)),  near. 
neah,   adv.,    nigh,    near,    nearly, 

almost ;      comparative,      near, 

nearer. 

neaht,  see  niht. 
nealecan  (-laecan)  (§  126),  draw 

near  to,  approach  (with  dat.). 


n§ar,  see  neah,  adv. 
neat,  n.,  neat,  cattle. 
nemnan  (§  127),  name. 
nemSe,  (nymSe),  except,  unless. 
nerian  (§  125),  save,  preserve. 
neten,  see  meten. 
nledbeSearf,  needful,  necessary. 
niehst,  see  neah  (§96,  (4)). 
nieten  (neten),   n.,   neat,  beast, 

cattle. 

nigontiene,  nineteen. 
niht  (neaht)  (§  68,   (1),  Note), 

night. 
nihthelm,  m.,  night-helm,  shade 

of  night. 

nihtscua.  m.,  shadow  of  night. 
niht-weorc,  n.,  night-work. 
niman  (§  114),  take,  gain  [nimble, 

numb] . 

nlpan  (§  102),  grow  dark,  darken. 
nis,  see  §  40,  Note  2. 
ni3,  m.,  malice,  violence. 
nlwe,  new,  novel,  startling. 
no,  see  na. 
noht  (naht,  na-wiht),  n.,  not  a 

whit,  naught,  nothing;  not,  not 

at  all. 
n6hweeSer(nahwae3er),  neither ; 

nohweeSer  ne  .  .  ne  .  .  .  ne 

.  .  ne  118,  8  =  neither  .  .  .  nor. 
nolde,   noldon  =  ne  wolde.  ne 

woldon,  see  T^illan. 
npma  (nama),  m.,  name. 
nor8  (§  97,   (1)),  north,  in   the 

north,  northwards. 
norSan  (§  93,  (5),  from  the  north  ; 

be  norSan,  see  §  94,  (4). 
NorS-Dene,  in.  pi.,  Xorth-Danes. 
norSeweard,  northward. 
NorShymbre,   in.  pi.,  Northum- 
brians. 
NorSmamia.  see 


Glossary. 


177 


NorSnif  n.  see  NorSn^n. 

norSmest,  see  norS. 

Nor6m9n   (-man)    (§   68,    (1)), 

Norwegian, 
norSor,  see  norS. 
norSryhte,  northward. 
norSweard,  northward. 
NorSweg,  Xurway. 
nose,  f.,  cape,  naze  [ness,  nose]. 
notu,  f.,  office,  employment. 
nu.  now;  now  that,  seeing  that; 

nu  3a  138,  13  =  now  then. 
nyhst    (niehst) ,  see  neah. 
nymSe,  see  nemSe. 
nysse,  see  iiytan. 
nyste,  see  nytan. 
nyt(t),  useful,  profitable. 
nytan  (nitan<ne  witan,  §  136), 

not  to   know;    3d  sing,    pret.,  j 

nysse.  nyste. 


of  (§  94,  (1)),  of,  from,  concern- 
ing. 

ofer(§94,  (2)),  over,  across,  after, 
in  spite  of  (see  144,  14)  ;  ofer 
eorSan  142,  9  =  on  earth. 

ofer,  adv.,  over,  across. 

oferferan  (§  126),  go  over,  trav- 
erse. 

oferfreosan  (§  W9~),  freeze  over. 

oferfroren.  see  oferfreosan. 

ofgiefan  (§  115),  give  up,  relin- 
quish. 

ofost,  f. ,  haste. 

ofsleegen.  see  ofslean. 

ofslean  (§  118),  slay  off,  slay. 

ofsloge,  see  ofslean. 

oft,  oft,  often ;  superlative,  oftost. 

on(§  94,  (3)),  in,  into,  on,  against, 
to,  among,  (hiring ;  onfifoSSe 


syx  109,  6  =  into  five  or  six 
parts ;  on  weg  140, 10  =  away ; 
on  innan  144,  5  =  within,  on 
unriht  145,  15  —falsely. 

onbaernan  (§  126),  kindle,  inspire. 

oncySS,  f.,  distress,  suffering. 

qnd  (and),  and. 

qndsaca,  in.,  adversary. 

9iidswarian  (§  130),  answer. 

9nd^veard,  adj.,  present. 

onfeng,  see  onf on. 

onfeohtan  (§  110),  fight. 

oiifindan  (§  110),  find  out,  dis- 
cover; pret.  indie.  3d  sing., 
onfunde. 

onfon  (§  118),  receive,  seize  vio- 
lently. 

onfunde,  see  oiifindan. 

ongean,  prep.,  against,  towards 
(with  dat.  and  ace.). 

ongean.  ad\~.,ju«t  across, opposite. 

Ongelcynn  (Angel-),  n.,  Angle 
kin,  English  people,  England. 

QngelSeod  (Angel-),  f.,  the  Eng- 
lish people  or  nation. 

ongemang  (-m9ng),  among  (with 
dat.). 

ongietan  (-gitan)  (§  115),  per- 
ceive, see,  understand. 

onginnan  (§  110),  begin,  attempt. 

onlutan  (§  109),  bow,  incline 
(intrans.)  [lout  =  a  stooper]. 

onrldan  (§  102),  ride  against, 
make  a  raid  on. 

onsendan  (§  127).  send. 

onslaipan  (onslepan)  (§  126), 
fall  asleep,  sleep. 

onsp9nnan  (§  117),  loosen  [un- 
span] ;  pret.  3d  sing,  indie., 
onspeon. 

onspringan  (§110),  spring  apart, 
unspring. 


178 


Glossary. 


onstal.  ra.,  institution,  supply. 
onstellan  (§  128),  establish  ;  pret. 

3d  sing,  indie.,  onstealde. 
onwaecnan  (§  127),  awake  (in- 

trans.). 
onweald    (-wald),    m.,   power, 

authority  [wield], 
onweiidaii  (§  127),  change,  over- 
turn [to  wind]. 
5r,  n.,  beginning. 
08  (§  94,   (2)),  until,  as  far  as 

(of  time  and  place)  ;   08  Seet, 

08  Se,  until. 

oSberan  (§  114),  bear  away. 
68er,    other,   second;   offer  .  .  . 

oSer,  the  one  .  .  .  the  other. 
oSfaestan  (§  127),  set  to  (a  task). 
oSfeallan  (§  117),  fall  off,  decline. 
o88e,  or ;  oSSe  .  .  .  oSSe,  either 

...  or. 

E. 

plega,  m.,  play,  festivity. 
port,  m.,  port  [Lat.  portus]. 


r&d,  f.,  raid. 

reecan  (§  126),  reach;  pret.  3d 

sing.,  rsehte. 
reest,  see  rest. 
Readingas,  m.  pi.,  Beading  (in 

Berkshire). 
rfccan    (§    128),    narrate,  tell; 

pret.  pi.  indie.,  rehton,  reahton. 
rfcceleas,  reckless,  careless. 
rfced,  n.,  house,  hall. 
regnian  (renian)  (§  130),  adorn, 

prepare ;  past  part. ,  geregnad. 
regollic  (-lee),  according  to  rule, 

regular. 
ren-weard.   m.,   mighty  warden, 

guard,  champion. 


r^st  (reest),  f.,  rest,  resting-place, 
bed. 

re3e,  fierce,  furious. 

rice,  rich,  powerful,  aristocratic. 

rice,  n.,  realm,  kingdom  [bishop- 
ric] . 

ricsian  (§  130),  rule. 

rldan  (§  102),  ride. 

riman  (§  12ti),  count  [rime]. 

rinc,  m.,  man,  warrior. 

rod,  f.,  rood,  cross;  rode  tacen, 
sign  of  the  cross. 

RSmware,  m.  pi.,  Romans. 

rpnd  (rand),  m.,  shield. 

run,  f. ,  rune,  secret  meditation 
[to  round  =  to  whisper] . 

rycene  (ricene),  quickly,  rashly. 

ryhtnorSanwind,  m.,  straight 
north-wind. 

S. 

see,  f.,  sea. 

sse-bat,  m.,  sea-boat. 

seed,  n.,  seed. 

saede.  see  secgan 

sael,  m.  f.,  time,  happiness  [sil-ly]  ; 
on  saelum  137,  22  =  joyous, 
merry. 

seelan  (§  126),  bind. 

see-liSend  (§  68,  (3)),  m.,  sea- 
farer (nom.  and  ace.  pi.  same  as 
nom.  and  ace.  sing. ) . 

sam  .  .  .  sam,  whether  .  .  .  or. 

same,  similarly ;  swa  same,  just 
the  same,  in  like  manner. 

samod.  see  S9mod. 

sanct,  m.,  f.,  saint  [Lat.  sanctus]; 
gen.  sing. ,  sanctae.  f . ,  sancti,  m, 

sang,  see  spng. 

sar.  f.,  n.,  sore,  pain,  wound. 

sar,  adj.,  sore,  grievous. 

sare,  sorely. 


Glossary. 


179 


sawan  (§  117,)  sow. 

sawol.  f.,  soul;  oblique  cases, 
sing.,  sawle  (§  39,  Note). 

scacan  (sceacan)  (§  116),  shake, 
go,  depart;  past  part.,  scacen. 
sceacen. 

scadu-helm,  m.,  cover  of  night, 
shadow-coiwing  [shadow-helm]; 
scadu-helma  gesceapu.  see 
Note  on  138,  2-6. 

sceal.  see  sculan. 

sceap.  n.,  sheep. 

sceat.  in.,  corner,  region,  quarter 
[sheet] ;  eorSan  sceatta  13',), 
14  =  in  the  regions  of  <  xrth 
(gen.  used  as  locative). 

aceawi(g)an  (§  130),  view,  see 
[shew]. 

sceawung,  f.,  seeing. 

sceolde,  see  sculan. 

sceop  (scop),  see  scieppan. 

sceowyrhta,  m.,  shoe-maktr. 

sce65an  (§  116),  injure,  scathe 
(with  dat. ) . 

scieppan  (§  116),  create. 

Scieppend,  m.,  Creator. 

scinan  (§  102),  shine. 

scip  (scyp),  n.,  ship. 

scipen,  n..  stall. 

sciprap.  m.,  ship-rope,  cable. 

scir,  f.,  shire,  district. 

Sciringesheal,  m.,  Sciringesheal 
(in  Norway). 

scolde,  see  sculan. 

scpmu.  f.,  shame,  dishonor. 

Sconeg,  f.,  Skaane  (southern  dis- 
trict of  the  Scandinavian  penin- 
sula). 

scopgereord,  n.,  poetic  language. 

scriSan  (§  102),  stride,  stalk. 

sculan  (§  136;  §  137,  Note  2), 
shall,  have  to,  ought. 


Scyldingas,    m.    pi.,    Scyldings, 


scyp,  see  scip. 

Scyppend,  see  Scieppend. 

88,  seo,  3eet  (§  28;  §  28,  Note 
3),  the;  that;  he,  she,  it;  who, 
which,  that;  Saes,  from  then, 
afterwards,  therefore  ;  Saes  Se 
(p.  110,  1.  2),  with  what;  3y 
.  .  .  3aet  (p.  110,  11.  7-8),  for 
this  reason  .  .  .  because  ;  to 
Saeni  .  .  .  swa.  to  such  an 
extent  ...  as;  8y  (Se),  the 
(adverbial,  with  comparatives)  ; 
Sy  .  .  .  Sy,  the  .  .  .  the. 

seali.  see  seon. 

sealde,  see  sellan. 

searo-gimm,  m.,  artistic  gem, 
jewel. 

searo-niS,  m.,  cunning  hatred, 
plot. 

searo-39nc,  m.,  cunning  thought, 
device. 

Seaxe.  m.  pi.,  Saxons,  Saxony. 

sec  e  an  (§  128),  to  seek,  visit, 
meet. 

secg.  m.,  man,  warrior. 

secgan  (§  132),  say,  tell. 

sefa,  m.,  mind,  spirit. 

sefte,  more  easily  (comparative  of 
softe. 

segel,  m.,  n.,  sail;  dat.  sing. 
=  segle. 

seglian  (§  130),  sail. 

s^le,  m.,  hall. 

seledream.  m.,  hall  joy,  festivity. 

sfle-ful,  n.,  hall  cup. 

selesecg.  m.,  hall  warrior,  re- 
tainer. 

selest.  best  (no  positive). 

self  (sylf),  self,  himself  (declined 
as  strong  or  weak  adjective). 


180 


GrloBzary, 


aellan  (syllan)  (§  128),  give  [sell, 
han(d)sel]. 

semninga.  forthwith,  straightway. 

s§ndan  (§  127),  send. 

seo,  see  se. 

seoc,  sj'cA;. 

seofon  (syfan),  seven. 

seolh.  in.,  seal;  gen.  sing.  = 
seoles  (§27,  (3)). 

seon  (§  118),  see,  look. 

seonu,  f.,  sinew;  nom.  pi.,  seon- 
owe. 

sess.  in.,  seat. 

sibb,  f.,  friendship, peace  [gosssp]. 

sidu  (siodu),  m.,  custom,  mo- 
rality, good  conduct. 

site,  see  beon. 

siex.  six;  syxa  (siexa)  sum, 
see  sum. 

siextig.  sixty. 

sige,  m.,  victory. 

sige-folc,  n.,  victorious  people. 

sige-leas,  victory-less,  of  defeat. 

sige-rof,  victory-famed,  victorious. 

sige-waipen,  n.,  victory-weapon. 

siglan  (§  127),  sail. 

Sillende,  Zealand. 

sine,  n.,  treasure, prize. 

sinc-faet,  u.,  see  137,  1  [treasure- 
vat]. 

sinc-3§gu,  f.,  receiving  of  treasure 
[Slogan]. 

sind,  sint.  siiidon   see  beon. 

singan  (§  110),  sing. 

sittan  (§  115,  Note  2),  sit,  take 
position. 

eS.3,  m.,  journey,  time;  forman 
siSe  139,  2  =  the  first  time 
(instr.  sing.). 

siSian  (§  130),  journey. 

siSSan,  after  that,  afterwards, 
after. 


sleep,  m.,  sleep. 

sleepan  (§  117),  sleep. 

slean  (§  118),  slay  [slow-worm]. 

slitan  (§  102),  slit,  tear  to  pieces. 

sliSen.  savage,  perilous. 

smael.  narrow. 

smalost,  see  sniael. 

snaw,  m.,  snow. 

snot  (t)  or,  icise,  prudent. 

sohte.  see  secan. 

SQmod  (samod),  together. 

sona,  soon. 

SQng,  m.,  n.,  song,  poem. 

SQngcreeft,    n».,  art  of  song  and 

poetry. 

sorg  (sorh),  f. ,  sorrow. 
BO&,  true. 
s58,  n.,  truth;   to   soSe,  for  a 

truth,  truly,  verily. 
s5S-feest,  truthful,  just. 
soSlice,  truly. 
sped,    f.,    possessions,     success, 

riches  [speed]. 
spedig,  rich,  prosperous. 
spell,  n.,  story,  tale  [gospel]. 
speow,  see  spowan. 
spere,  n.,  spear. 
spor,  n.,  track,  footprint. 
spowan  (§  117),  succeed  (imper- 
sonal with  dat.). 
spiaec.  f.,  speech,  language. 
sprecan  (§  115),  speak. 
spyrian    (spyrigean)    (§    130), 

follow  (intrans.)  [spor]. 
staef,  staff,  rod;  pi.  =  literature, 

learning. 

staelhran,  m.,  decoy-reindeer.   » 
staelwierSe,  serviceable  (see  p.  56, 

Note  2). 
stair,  n.,   story,  narrative    [Lat 

historia] . 
staeS.  n.,  shore. 


Glossary. 


181 


stan.  m.,  stone,  rock. 
stan-boga,  in.,  stone-arch  [stone- 
bow]  . 

standan,  see  stpndaii. 
stanhliS  (-hleo3),  n.,  stone-cliff. 
stapol.  m.,  column  [staple!. 
starian  (§  125),  stare,  gaze. 
stfde,  in.,  place. 
stelan  (§  114),  steal. 
st^nt,  see  stQndan. 
steorbord,    n.,   starboard,    right 

side  of  a  ship. 
steppan  (§  116),  step,  advance; 

pret.  indie.  3d  sing. ,  stop. 
stilnes,  f.,  stillness,  quiet. 
st9iadan  (§  116),  stand. 
stop,  see  st^ppan. 
storm,  m.,  storm. 
stow,    f.,    place    [stow,    and  in 

names  of  places], 
strang,  see  strQng. 
strongest,  see  sti^ng. 
strQng  (§  96,  (2)),  strong. 
styccemeelum,  here  and  there. 
sum  (§  91,  Note  2),  some,  certain, 

a  certain  one ;    he  syxa  sum 

104,  25  =  he  with  five  others. 
sumera,  see  sumor. 
sumor,  in.,  summer;  dat.  sing.  = 

sumera. 

sumorlida,  m.,  summer-army. 
sundor.  apart. 
sunue,  f.,  sun. 
sunn,  m.,  son. 
suS,  south,  southwards. 
BfiSan     (§    93,    (f>)),    from    the 

south ;    be    suSan,    south    of 

(§  94,  (4)). 

suSeweard,  southward. 
suSryhte,  south n-nnl. 
swa  (swai),  so,  as,  how,  as  if; 

swa  swa.  just  as,  as  far  as; 


swa  .  .  .  swa,  the  .  .  .  the, 
as  .  .  .  as;  swa  hweet  swa, 
whatsoever  (§  77,  Note). 

swaes,  beloved,  own. 

swaeS,  n.,  track,  footprint 
[swath]. 

swaSul,  m.  ?  n.  ?,  smoke. 

swealh,  see  swelgan. 

swefan  (§  115),  sleep,  sleep  the 
sleep  of  death. 

swefn,  n.,  sleep,  dream. 

sweg,  m.,  sound,  noise. 

swegle,  bright,  clear. 

swelan  (§  126),  burn  [sweal]. 

swelgan  (§  110),  swallow;  pret. 
indie.  3d  sing.,  swealh;  subj., 
swulge. 

swellan  (§  110),  swell. 

Sweoland,  n.,  Sweden. 

Sweom,  m.,  dat.  pi.,  the  Swedes 

sweotol,  clear. 

sweotole,  clearly. 

swfrian  (§  116),  swear. 

s^vete,  sweet. 

swetnes  (-nis),  f.,  sweetness. 

swift  (swyft),  swift. 

swilc  (swylc)  (§  77),  such. 

swilce,  in  such  manner,  as,  like- 
wise; as  if,  as  though  (with 
subj.). 

swimman  (§  110),  swim. 

swm  (swyn),  n.,  swine,  hog. 

swinsung,  f.,  melody,  harmony. 

swiSe  (swySe),  very,  exceedingly 
greatly. 

swiSost.  chiefly,  almost. 

swor,  see  swf  rian. 

swulge,  see  swelgan. 

swuster  (§68,  (2)),  f.,  sister. 

swylce  (swelce),  see  swilce 

swyn.  see  swin. 

swynsian  (§  130),  resound. 


182 


Glossary. 


swySe,  see  swiSe. 

swyS-ferhS,  strong -souled. 

sylf,  see  self. 

syll,  f.,  sill,  floor. 

syllan.  see  s^llan. 

symbel,  n.,  feast,  banquet. 

symle,  always. 

synd.  see  beon. 

syn-dolh,    n.,    ceaseless    wound, 

incurable  wound. 
syndriglice,  specially. 
synn,  f.,  sin. 
syn-scaSa,  m.,  ceaseless  scather, 

perpetual  foe. 
syn-sneed,  f.,  huge  bit  [ceaseless 

bit]. 

sySSan,  see  siSSan. 
syx,  see  siex. 
syxtig,  see  siextig. 

T. 
tacen,  n.,  sign,  token;  dat.  sing., 

tacne  (§  33,  Note). 
taecan  (§  128),  teach. 
tain.  tame. 

tela,  properly,  well  [til]. 
teUan  (§  128),  count,  deem  [tell]  ; 

pret.  3d  sing.,  tealde. 
Tfmes,  f.,  the  Thames. 
teon.  arrange,  create ;  pret.  sing. , 

teode. 

Terfimaa,  m.,  gen.  pi.,  the  Terflns. 
teS,  see  toS. 
tid,  f.,  tide,  time,  hour. 
tien  (tyn),  ten. 
til(l),  good. 
tuna,  m.,  time. 
tintregllc,  full  of  torment. 
fro  (§  94,  (1)),  to.  for,  according 

to,  as;  to  hrofe  114,  2=  for 

(as)  a  roof  [cf.  Biblical  to  wife, 

modern  to  boot]. 


to,  adv.,  too. 

tobrecan  (p.  81,  Note  2),  break 

to  pieces,  knock  about. 
todeelan  (§  126),  divide. 
toemnes  (to  emnes)  (§  94,  (4)), 

along,  alongside. 
toforan  (§94,  (1)),  before. 
togeSeodan  (§  126),  join. 
tohopa.  m.,  hope. 
tolicgan  (§  115,  Note  2),  separate, 

lie  between ;   3d  sing,  indie.  = 

toliS. 

toliS,  see  tolicgan. 
tolucan   (109,    Note   1),   destroy 

[the  prefix  to  reverses  the  mean- 
ing of  lucan,  to  lock}. 
torn,  m.,  anger,  insult. 
to3  (§  68,  (1)),  m.,  tooth. 
toweard  (§  94,  (1)),  toward. 
toweard,      adj.,      approaching, 

future. 

treow^,  f.,  pledge,  troth. 
treownes,  f.,  trust. 
Tirus5,    Drausen   (a  city  on  the 

Drausensea). 
tiin,  m.,  town,  village. 
tunge,  f.,  tongue. 
tungerefa.  in.,  bailiff  [town-reeve  ; 

so  sheriff  =  shire-reeve]. 
tungol,  n.,  star. 
twa,  see  tw^egen. 
twegen,  (§  89),  two,  twain. 
twentig,  twenty. 
tyn,  see  tien. 

£>. 

8a,  then,  when ;  Sa  .  .  .  3a,  when 
.  .  .  then  ;  3a  8a,  then  when  — 
when. 

3a.  see  se. 

Sser,  there,  where;  Seer  Seer, 
there  where  =  where  ;  Seer  .  .  . 


Glossary. 


183 


swa  142, 4  =  wheresoever  ;  145, 6 

=  if  so  be  that. 
Sees,  afterwards,  therefore,  thus, 

because;  see  se. 
Seet  (Saette  =  Saet  3e),  that,  so 

that. 

Safian  (§  130),  consent  to. 
Sane,  see  89110. 
Sancian     (Soncian)      (§     130), 

thank. 

Saiion.  see  8911311. 
Sas,  see  Ses. 

Se,  see  se  (instr.  sing.)  and  8u. 
8e    (§  75),   who,   whom,   which, 

that. 
Sean,    though,    although;    Seah 

3e,  though,  although. 
Searf,  see  Surfan. 
Searf,  f.,  need,  benefit. 
Seaw,  m.,  habit,  custom  [thews]. 
Segn  (Segen),  m.,  servant,  thane, 

icarrior. 

8§nc(e)an  (§  128),  think,  intend. 
Sening(-ung),  f.,  service;  the  pi. 

may  mean  book  of  service  (117, 

17). 

Seod,  f.,  people,  nation. 
Seoden,  m.,  prince,  lord. 
Seodscipe,  in.,  discipline. 
Seon  (Sywan)  (§  126),  oppress 

[Seow]. 

Seow,  m.,  servant. 
Seowa,  m.,  servant. 
Seowotdom  (Siowot-),  m.,  ser- 
vice. 

Ses  (§  73),  this. 
Sider,  thither. 
Siderweard.  thitherward. 
Sin  (§76),  thine. 
Sing,  n.,  thing  ;  genige  3inga,  see 

140,  15,  Note. 
Singan  (§  127),  arrange,  appoint. 


Sis,  see  3es 

Sissuni.  see  8es. 

3ohte,  Sohton,  see  S^ncean. 

Solian  (§  130),  endure  [thole]. 

39iiaii.  thence. 

39nc,  m.,  thanks. 

8one,  see  se. 

Sonne,  than,  then,  when;  Sonne 
.  .  .  Sonne,  when  ...  then. 

3rag,  f.,  time. 

3rea-nyd,  f.,  compulsion,  oppres- 
sion, misery  [throe-need]. 

Sreora,  see  Srie. 

Sridda,  third. 

Srie  (3ry)  (§  89),  three. 

Srini.  see  Srie. 

Srist-hydig,  bold-minded. 

Sritig,  thirty. 

3rowung,  f.,  suffering. 

Sry,  see  Srie. 

Srym(m),  m.,  renown,  glory, 
strength. 

Sry3.  f.,  power,  multitude  (pi.  used 
in  sense  of  sing.)  ;-  asca  SrySe 
152,  23  =  the  might  of  spears. 

SryS-eern,  n.,  mighty  house,  noble 
hall. 

SryS-word,  n.,  mighty  word,  ex- 
cellent discourse. 

Su  (§  72),  thou. 

Sulite.  see  Syncan. 

Surian  (§  136),  need ;  pres.  hidic. 
3d  sing.,  Searf;  pret.  3d  sing., 
Sorfte  ;  for-Sam  me  -witan 
ne  Searf  Waldend  fira  mor- 
8or-bealo  maga  145,  17  = 
therefore  the  Ruler  of  men  need 
not  charge  me  icith  the  murder 
of  kinsmen. 

Surh  (§  94,  (2)),  through. 

3us,  thus. 

Susend,  thousand. 


184 


Glossary. 


Sy,  see  s§. 

Syder,  see  Sider. 

3yncan  (§  128),  seem,  appear 
(impersonal)  ;  me  SyncS,  me- 
thinks,  it  seems  to  me ;  him 
Suhte,  it  seemed  to  him. 

U. 

uhta,  m.,  dawn;  gen.  pi.,  uhtna. 

unbeboht.  unsold  [bebycgan  = 
to  sell}. 

uncuS,  unknown,  uncertain  [un- 
couth] . 

under,  under  (with  dat.  and  ace.). 

understQiidan  (§  116),  under- 
stand. 

underSeodan  (-Sledan)  (§  126), 
subject  to;  past  part.  under- 
Seeded  =  subjected  to,  obedient 
to  (with  dat.). 

unforbaerned,  unburned. 

unfriS.  m.,  hostility. 

ungefoge.  excessively. 

ungemete,  immeasurably,  very. 

ungesewenlic,  invisible  [past 
part,  of  aeon  +  He]. 

unlyfigend,  dead,  dead  man  [un- 
living]. 

unlytel,  no  little,  great. 

unrint,  n.,  wrong;  on  unriht. 
see  on. 

unrihtwisnes,  £. ,  unrighteous- 
ness. 

unspedig,  poor. 

\inwearnum,  unawares. 

up  (upp),  up. 

upastignes,  f.,  ascension  [sti- 
gan]. 

up-lang,  upright. 

ure  (§  76),  our. 

usses  =  gen.  sing.  neut.  of  user, 
see  ic 


ut,  out,  outside. 

utan,  from  without,  outside. 

utanbordes,  abroad. 

utgQng,  in.,  exodus. 

uton,  let  us  (with  inh'n.)  [literally 
let  us  go  with  infin.  of  purpose 
(see  137,  19-20,  Note)  ;  uton  = 
wuton,  corrupted  form  of  1st 
pi.  subj.  of  witan,  to  go]. 

ut-weard,  outward  bound,  mov- 
ing outwards. 

W. 

wac,  weak,  insignificant. 

wacian  (§  130),  watch,  be  on 
guard;  imperative  sing.,  waca. 

wadan  (§  116),  go,  tread  [wade]. 

waeg,  m.,  wave. 

Weegmundigas,  m.,  Wcegmun- 
dings  (family  to  which  Beowulf 
and  Wiglaf  belonged). 

wael,  n.,  slaughter,  the  slain. 

weel-bleat,  deadly  [slaughter- 
pitiful]. 

weelgifre,  greedy  for  slaughter. 

wael-raes,  m.,  mortal  combat 
[slaughter-race] . 

wael-reow,  fierce  in  strife. 

weelsliht  (-sleaht),m., slaughter. 

waelstow,  f . ,  battle-field  [slaugh- 
ter-place] ;  weelstowe  ge- 
wald,  possession  of  the  battle- 
field. 

weepen,  n.,  weapon. 

weere,  see  beon. 

•waBB,  see  beon. 

waster,  n.,  water. 

waldend.  see  wealdend. 

wan  (wgn),  wan,  dark. 

wanhydig,  heedless,  rash. 

wanigean  (wanian)  (§  130), 
bewail,  lament  (trans.)  [whine]. 


Glossary. 


185 


warian  (§  130),  attend,  accom- 
pany. 

wat,  see  witan. 

waSum,  m.,  wave ;  gen.  pi., 
waSema. 

weal(l),  m.,  wall,  rampart. 

wealdend  (§  68,  (3)),  wielder, 
ruler,  lord. 

wealh,  m.,  foreigner,  Welshman. 

wealhstod,  m.,  interpreter,  trans- 
'  lator. 

weallan  (§  117),  well  up,  boil,  be 
agitated;  pret.  3d.  sing,  indie., 
weoll. 

wealsteal(l),  m.,  wall-place,  foun- 
'  dation. 

weard,  m.,  ward,  keeper. 

wearS,  see  weorSan. 

weaxan  (§  117),  wax,  grow. 

weg,  m.,  way;  hys  weges,  see 
§  93,  (3)  ;  on  weg,  see  on. 

wel(l),  well,  readily. 

wela,  m.,  weal,  prosperity,  riches. 

welm,  see  wielm. 

wenan  (§  126),  ween,  think,  ex- 
pect. 

w^ndan  (§  127),  change,  translate 
[wend,  windan]. 

we^iian  (§  130),  entertain;  w§n- 
ian  mid  wynnum  149,  20  = 
entertain  joyfully ;  w^nede  to 
wiste  149,  27  —feasted  (trans.). 

Weonodland  (WeonoSland), 
n.,  Wendland. 

weorc,  n.,  work,  deed. 

weorold  (weoruld),  see  woruld. 

weorpan  (§  110),  throw. 

weorSan  (§  110),  be,  become. 

wer,  m.,  man  [werwulf]. 

werig,  weary,  dejected. 

werod,  n.,  army,  band. 

wesan,  see  beon. 


Wesseaxe,  m.  pi.,  West  Saxons; 
gen.  pi.  =  Wesseaxna. 

west,  west,  westward. 

•vyestanv^ind,  m.,  west  wind. 

•weste,  waste. 

westen,  n.,  waste,  desert. 

Westsse,  f.,  West  Sea  (west  of 
Norway). 

Westseaxe,  m.  pi.,  West  Saxons, 
Wessex. 

wic,  n.,  dwelling  [bailiwick]. 

wlcian  (§  130),  stop,  lodge,  so- 
journ [wic]. 

widre,  adv.,  farther,  more  widely 
(comparative  of  wide). 

wldsa,  f.,  open  sea. 

wielm  (welm),  m.,  welling,  surg- 
ing flood  [weallan]. 

wif,  n.,  wife,  woman. 

•wig,  m.,  n.,  war,  battle. 

wiga,  m.,  warrior. 

wild,  wild. 

•wilder,  n.,  wild  beast,  reindeer; 
dat.  pi.  =  wildrum  (§  33,  Note). 

willa,  m.,  will, pleasure  ;  gen.  pi., 
wilna  (138,  16). 

willan  (§  134 ;  §  137,  Note  3), 
will,  intend,  desire. 

wilnung,  f.,  wish,  desire;  for 
Saere  wilnunga  119,  4=  pur- 
posely. 

Wiltun, m. ,  Wilton  (in  Wiltshire). 

•win,  n.,  wine. 

win-eern,  n.,  wine-hall. 

WInburne,  f . ,  Wimborne  (in  Dor- 
setshire) . 

•wind,  m.,  wind. 

wine,  m. ,  friend. 

Winedas,  m.  pi.,  the  Wends,  the 
Wend  country. 

wine-dryhten,  m.,  friendly  lord. 

wineleas,  friendless. 


186 


G-lossary. 


winemaeg,  m.,  friendly  kinsman. 

wlngeard,  m.,  vineyard. 

winnan  (§  110),  strive,  fight 
[win]. 

winsael.  n.,  wine-hall. 

win-sele,  in.,  wine-hall. 

winter,  m.,  winter;  dat.  sing.  = 
wintra. 

wintercearig,  winter-sad,  winter- 
worn. 

wis,  wise. 

•wisdom,  in.,  wisdom. 

wise,  wisely. 

wise,  f.,  manner,  matter,  affair 
[in  this  wise]. 

wls-faest,  wise  [wise-fast ;  cf. 
shame-faced  =  shamefast]. 

wis-hycgende,  wise-thinking. 

Wisle,  f.,  the  Vistula. 

WislemuSa,  m.,  the  mouth  of  the 
Vistula. 

wisse,  see  witan. 

wist,  f.,  food,  feast. 

wita,  m.,  wise  man,  councillor. 

witan  (§  136),  know,  show, 
experience. 

witan  (§  102),  reproach,  blame 
(with  ace.  of  thing,  dat.  of  per- 
son). 

wite,  n.,  punishment. 

Witland,  n.,  Witland  (in  Prussia). 

wiS  (94,  (3)),  against,  toward, 
with  ;  wi3  eastan  and  wiS  upp 
on  emnlange  Saem  bynuni 
lande,  toward  the  east,  and  up- 
wards along  the  cultivated  land; 
wiS  earm  gesaet  139,  11  =  sup- 
ported himself  on  his  arm ;  ge- 
nered  wi8  niSe  (dat.)  143,  11 
=  had  preserved  it  from(against'} 
violence. 

wiSerwinna,  m.,  adversary. 


wiSfon    (§    118),    grapple    with 

(with  dat.). 
wiShabban  (§  133),   withstand, 

resist  (with  dat.). 
wiSstqndan  (§  116),  withstand, 

resist  (with  dat.). 
wl9nc,  proud. 
wod,  see  wadan. 
wolcen,  n.,  cloud  [welkin]  ;  dat. 

pi.,  wolcnum. 
wolde,  see  willan. 
woma,  in.,  noise,  alarm,  terror. 
wxjn,  see  wan. 
wop,  n.,  weeping. 
word,  n. ,  word. 

worian  (§  130),  totter,  crumble. 
worn,  m.,  large  number,  multi- 
tude. 
woruld,  f.,  world;  to  worulde 

butan  ^ghwilcum  ^nde   102, 

18  =  world  without  end. 
woruldcund,  worldly,  secular. 
woruldhad,     m.,     secular     life 

[world-hood]. 
woruldrice,   n.,   world-kingdom, 

world. 

woruldSing,  n.,  worldly  affair. 
wreeclast,  in.,  track  or  path  of 

an  exile. 

wraS,  wroth,  angry  ;  foe,  enemy. 
writan  (§  102),  write. 
wncu,  f.,  week. 
wudu,  m. ,  wood,  forest. 
wuldor,  n.,  glory. 
Wuldorfaeder   (§   68,    (2)),  m., 

Father    of  glory;    gen.    sing., 

Wuldorfaeder. 
Wuldur-cyning,    in.,     King    of 

glory. 

wulf,  m.,  wolf. 
wund,  f.,  wound. 
wund,  wounded. 


Glossary. 


187 


wunden,  twisted,  woven,  con- 
volute (past  part,  of  windan). 

wundor,  n.,  wonder,  marvel. 

wundrian  (§  130),  wonder  at 
(with  gen.). 

wurdon,  see  weorSan. 

wurSan,  see  weorSan. 

wylf,  f.,  she  wolf. 

wyllaS,  see  willan. 

wyn-leas,  joyless. 

wynn,  f . ,  joy,  delight. 

wynsum,  winsome,  delightful. 

wyrc(e)an  (§  128),  icork,  make, 
compose. 

wyrd,  f . ,  iceird,  fate,  destiny. 

wyrhta,  in.,  worker,  creator 
[-wright] . 

wyrm,  m.,  icorm,  dragon,  serpent. 

wyrmlica,  in.,  serpentine  orna- 
mentation. 

wyr3  (weorS),  worthy ;  see  114, 
7-9,  Note. 


ylca,  see  ilca. 

yldan    (§   127),   delay,  postpone 

[eald]. 

yldu,  f.,  age  [eld]. 
ymbe  (ymb)   (§  94,  (2)),  about, 

around,  concerning  [?<mwhile]  ; 

Sees  ymb  iii  niht  99,  2  =  about 

three  nights  afterwards. 
ymb-eode,  see  ymb-gan. 
ymbe-sittend,  one  who  sits 

(dwells)  round  about  another, 

neighbor. 
ymb-gan  (§  134),  go  about,  go 

around,  circle  (with  ace.). 
yrfe-weard,  m.,  heir. 
yrnan,  see  iernan. 
yrre,  ireful,  angry. 
yteren,  of  an  otter  [otor], 
ySan  (§  126),  lay  waste  (as  by  a 

deluge)  [yS  =  wave~\. 


II.  GLOSSARY. 


MODERN  ENGLISH  — OLD  ENGLISH. 


a,  an  (§  77). 

abide,  bidan  (§  102),  dbidan. 

about,  be  (§  94,  (1)),  ymfte  (§  94, 
(2))  ;  to  write  about,  icritan 
be;  to  speak  about  (=of), 
sprecan  ymbe  ;  about  two  days 
afterwards,  (Sees  ymbe  twegen 
dagas. 

adder,  nsedre  (§64). 

afterwards,  Sees  (§  93,  (3)). 

against,  wiS  (§  94,  (3)),  on  (§  94, 
(3)). 

Alfred,  Alfred  (§26). 

all,  eall  (§  80). 

also,  ""'•. 

although,  Veah  (§  105,  2). 

always,  a;  ealne  weg  (§  98,  (1)). 

am,  com  (§  40). 

an,  see  a. 

and,  gnd  (and). 

angel,  sngel  (§  26). 

animal,  dear  (§  32). 

are,  sind,  sint,  sindon  (§  40). 

army,  werod  (§  32)  ;  Danish 
army,  h^re  (§  26)  ;  English 
army,  flerd  (§  38). 

art,  eart  (§  40). 

Ashdown,  ^Escesdun  (§  38). 


ask,  biddan  (§  65,  Note  3  ;  §  115, 

Note  2). 
away,  aweg. 

B. 

battle-field,  wcelstow  (§  38). 
be,  6eon  (§  40)  ;  not  to  be,  see 

§  40,  Note  2. 
bear,  beran  (§  114). 
because,  for  ti&m  (3c),  for  Son 

(3e). 

become,  weorfian  (§  110). 
before    (temporal    conjunction), 

«r,  «r  S«m  &c  (§  105,  2). 
begin,    onginnan    (§   107,    (1)  ; 

§  HO). 
belong  to,  belimpan  to  +  dative 

(§  HO). 
best,  see  good, 
better,  see  good, 
bind,  bindan  (§  110). 
bird,  fugol  (§  26). 
bite,  b'ltan  (§  102). 
body,  Uc  (§  32). 
bone,  ban  (§  32). 
book,  boc  (§  68). 
both  .  .  .  and,  segtSer  ge  .  .  .  ge. 
boundary,  mearc  (§  38). 
boy,  cnapa  (§.64). 


189 


190 


Glossary. 


break,  breotan  (§  109),  brecan, 

dbrecan  (§  114). 
brother,  brodor  (§  68,  (2)). 
but,  ac. 
by,   fryn    (/ram)    (§    94,    (1)  ; 

§  141,  Note  1). 


C. 

Ceedmon,  Ccedrngn  (§  68,  (1)). 

caU,  hdtan  (§  117,  (1)). 

cease,     cease    from,     geswlcan 

(§  102). 

chUd,  beam  (§  32). 
choose,  ceosan  (§  109). 
Christ,  Crist  (§26). 
church,  cirice  (§  64). 
come,  cuman  (§  114). 
comfort,  frofor  (§  38). 
companion,  gefera  (§  64). 
consolation,  frofor  (§  38). 
create,  gescieppan  (§  116). 


D. 

Danes,  D^«e  (§  47). 

day,  dceg  (§26). 

dead,  dead  (§80). 

dear  (=  beloved),  leof  (§  80). 

deed,  deed  (§  38). 

die,  cwelan  (§  114). 

division     (of     troops),     gefylce 

(§  32),  getruma  (§  64). 
do,  do?i  (§  134). 
door,  dor  (§  32),  duru  (§  52). 
drink,  drincan  (§  110). 
during,  o«  (§  94,  (3)).    See  also 

§98. 
dwell  in,  buan  on  (§  126,  Note 

2). 


earl,  eorl  (§  26). 
endure,  dreogan  (§  109). 
England,  Englalnnd  (§32). 
enjoy,   brucan   (§   62,    Note    1 ; 

§  109,  Note  1). 
every,  selc  (§  77). 
eye,  eage  (§  64). 

F. 

father,  feeder  (§  68,  (2)). 

field,  feld  (§  51). 

fight,  feohtan,  gefeohtan  (§  110). 

find,  Jindan  (§  110). 

finger,  finger  (§  26). 

fire,  fyr  (§  32). 

fisherman,  fiscere  (§  26). 

foreigner,  wealh  {§  26). 

freedom,  freedom  (§  26). 

friend,  ict»e  (§  45),freond  (§  68, 

(3))- 

friendship,  freondscipe  (§  45). 
full,  full  (with  genitive)  (§  80). 


gain  the  victory,  sige  habban, 
sige  niman. 

gift,  giefu  (§  38). 

give,  giefan  (with  dative  of  in- 
direct object)  (§  115). 

glad,  glced  (§  81). 

glove,  $rZ6/(§38). 

go,  gran  (§  134),/aran  (§  116). 

God,  God  (§  26). 

good,  god  (§  80). 


Halgoland,  Helgoland  (§  32). 
hall,  heall  (§  38). 


Modern  English  —  Old  English. 


191 


hand,  h?nd  (§  52). 

hard,  heard  (§  80). 

have,   habban   (§   34)  ;    not    to 

have,  nabban  (p.  32,  Note). 
he,  he  (§  53). 
head,  heafod  (§  32). 
hear,  hieran  (§  126). 
heaven,  heofon  (§  26). 
help,  helpan  (with  dative)  (§  110). 
herdsman,  hierde  (§  26). 
here,  her. 
hither,  hider. 

hold,  healdan  (§  117,  (2)). 
holy,  halig  (§  82). 
horse,  mearh  (§  26),  hors  (§  32). 
house,  hus  (§32). 


I. 
I,  ic  (§  72). 

in,  on  (§  94,  (3)). 

indeed,  sodlice. 

injure,     scfidan     (with     dative) 

(§  H6). 
it,  Art  (§  53). 


king,  cyning  (§  26). 
kingdom,   rice   (§   32),  cynerice 
(§  32). 

L. 

land,  lvnd  (§  32). 

language,  sprac  (§  38),  geSeode 

(§32). 

large,  micel  (§  82). 
leisure,  xmetta  (§  64). 
let  us,  ?i«ow  (with  infinitive). 
limb,  Urn  (§32). 
little,  lytel  (§  82). 
live  in,  buan  on  (§  126,  Note  2). 
lord,  Ma/ord  (§  26). 


love,  luflan  (§  131). 
love  (noun),  lufu  (§  38). 

M. 

make,  wyrcan  (§  128). 

man,  sjcgr  (§26),  myw  (^68,  (1)). 

many,  mynig  (§  82).    ' 

mare,  my  re  (§  64). 

mead,  medu  (§  51). 

Mercians,  Mierce  (§  47). 

milk,  ??»eoZc  (§  38). 

month,  monad  (§  68,  (1),  Note  1). 

mouth,  mud  (§  26). 

much,  nu'ceZ  (§  96,    (3)),  micle 

(§  97,  (2)). 

murderer,  6(wa  (§  64). 
my,  mm  (§  76). 

N. 

natives,  lyndleode  (§  47). 
nephew,  ?^/a  (§  64). 
new,  mice  (§  82). 
Northumbrians,  Xorftymbre 

(§  47). 
not,  we. 

O. 

of,  see  about. 

on,  on  (§  94,  (3)),  ofer  (§  94, 

(2))- 
one,  an  (§  89)  ;    the  one  .  .  . 

the  other,  oSer  .  .  .  ofier. 
other,  oder  (§77). 
our,  ure  (§  76). 
ox,  oxa  (§  64). 

P. 

place,  stow  (§  38). 
plundering,  h^rgung  (§  38). 


192 


Glossary. 


poor,  earm  (§  80),  unspedig(§  82). 
prosperous,  spedig  (§  82). 

Q 

queen,  cwen  (§  49). 


reindeer,  hran  (§  26). 
remain,  lildan  (§  102),  dbulan. 
retain  possession  of  the  battle- 
field, dgan  iccelstmce  gewald. 
rich,  rice  (§82),  spedig  (§82). 
ride,  rldan  (§  102). 


8. 

say,     cweiSan     (§     115),    s^cgan 

(§  133). 

scribe,  bocere  (§  26). 
seal,  seoUi  (§  26). 
see,  seon  (§  118),  geseon. 
serpent,  needre  (§  64). 
servant,  deowa  (§  64),  ftegn  (§26). 
shall,    sculan   (§    136;    §    137, 

Note  2). 

she,  heo  (§  53). 
shepherd,  hierde  (§  26). 
ship,  scip  (§  32). 
shire,  scir  (§  38). 
shoemaker,  sceovnjrhta  (§  64). 
side,  on  both  sides,  on  gehwceSre 


six,  siex  (§  90). 

slaughter,  wcel  (§  32),  wcelsliht 

(§  «). 

small,  lytel  (§82). 
son,  sunu  (§  51). 
soul,  sawol  (§  38)  . 
speak,  sprecan  (§  115). 
spear,  gar  (§  26),  spere  (§  32). 


stand,  stqndan  (§  116). 

stone,  stdn  (§  26). 

stranger,    wealh    (§    26),   cuma 

(§  64). 

suffer,  dreogan  (§  109). 
sun,  sunne  (§  64). 
swift,  sioi/«  (§  80). 

T. 

take,  niman  (§  110). 

than,  Sonne  (§  96,  (6)). 

thane,  degn  (§  26). 

that  (conjunction),  ft&t. 

that  (demonstrative),  se,  seo,  8cet 

(§  28). 

that  (relative),  tie  (§  75). 
the,  se,  seo,  8oet  (§  28). 
then,  #a,  Sonne. 
these,  see  this, 
they,  Me  (§53). 
thing,  Zing  (§  32). 
thirty,  iSrltig. 
this,  ftes,  Seos,  3is  (§  73). 
those,  see  that  (demonstrative). 
thou,  du  (§72). 
though,  tieah  (§  105,  2). 
three,  tSrie  (§89). 
throne,   ascend  the  throne,   to 

rice  fdn. 

throw,  weorpan  (§  110). 
to,  to  (§  94,  (1)). 
tongue,  tunge  (§  64). 
track,  spor  (§  32). 
true,  sod  (§  80). 
truly,  scftlice. 
two,  twegen  (§  89). 

V. 

very,  swiSe. 
vessel,  feet  (§32). 
victory,  sigre  (§  45). 


Modern  English  —  Old  English. 


193 


wall,  weall  (§  26). 

warrior,  s$cg  (§  26),  eorl  (§  26). 

way,  weg  (§  26). 

weapon,  ic&pen  (§  32). 

well,  icel  (§  97,  (2)). 

Welshman,  Wealh  (§  26). 

•went,  see  go. 

westward,  west,  loestrihte. 

whale,  hiccel  (§  26). 

what?  hwcet  (§  74). 

when,  #<7,  fionne. 

where?  hwxr. 

which,  tie  (§  75). 

who?  hwd  (§  74). 

who  (relative),  8e  (§  75). 

whosoever,  swd  hwd  stoa'(§  77, 

Note). 
will,    willan    (§    134;     §    137, 

Note  3). 

Wilton,  Wiltun  (§  26). 
•win,  see  gain. 


•wine,  win  (§  32). 

wisdom,  wisdom  (§  26). 

wise,  wls  (§  80). 

with,  mid  (§  94,  (1)) ;  to  fight 

•with    (=  against),    gefeohtan 

wti  (§  94,  (3)). 
withstand,      wifistyndaii      (with 

dative)  (§  116). 
wolf,  wulf  (§26),  wylf  (§  38). 
woman,  wlf  (§  32). 
word,  word  (§32). 
worm,  wyrm  (§  45). 


Y. 

ye,  ge  (§  72). 

year,  gear  (§  32). 

yoke,  geoc  (§  32). 

you,  (5u  (singular),  ge  (plural) 
(§  72). 

your,  din  (singular),  lower  (plu- 
ral) (§  76). 


ERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


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